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Chemical Quality of Water

Water in its natural state is never completely pure. The following discussion will deal with the common types of dissolved solids in water and how they can be removed. Part of the discussion is adapted from Standard Methods (1955). The water samples were analyzed by Howard Stoltenberg, chemist, Sanitary Engineering Laboratory, Division of Sanitation, Kansas State Board of Health, in Topeka. The water samples were not tested bacteriologically.

Dissolved Solids

Hardness--Hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium, but dissolved iron, manganese, aluminum, and other metals add to water hardness. Dissolved calcium and magnesium react with soap to form a sticky curd. The soap that combines with calcium and magnesium is thus wasted. Metallic cations unite with anions to form a hard scale in pipes. Hardness is decreased in water-treatment plants by the addition of lime (Ca(OH)₂) and soda ash (Na₂CO₃) or, on a domestic or small commercial scale, by other chemical water softeners. If the hardness is greater than the alkalinity, that amount of hardness equivalent to the alkalinity is called carbonate hardness or temporary hardness; any amount of hardness in excess of this is called noncarbonate hardness or permanent hardness. Temporary hardness can be considerably reduced by boiling.

Iron and manganese--One of the most troublesome of the dissolved solids in water is iron. Dissolved manganese is just as objectionable but not as common. Both cause staining of laundry and plumbing if concentrations of both cations together exceed about 0.3 ppm. Under reducing conditions, iron exists in natural water in the ferrous state, which is relatively soluble. Ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron upon exposure to the air. Ferric oxide is the rust that precipitates upon settling. Ferric oxide may also be precipitated by Crenothrix bacteria. Iron and manganese may be removed by aeration, chemical precipitation, superchlorination, and use of special ion-exchange materials.

Silica--Most natural water contains some soluble or colloidal silica, which is not physiologically harmful. Colloidal silica may be removed by coagulation and filtration, but soluble silica is not easily removed.

Alkalinity--Carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide impart alkalinity to natural water. Carbonate is rarely found in ground water. Alkalinity is decreased by precipitating the bicarbonate with lime or by increasing the acidity.

Sulfate--Sulfate is a common constituent of natural water. Solution of the gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), anhydrite (CaSO₄), and small quantities of barite (BaSO₄) in the rocks is an abundant source of sulfate in water. Dissolved sulfate in quantities much greater than 250 ppm is likely to have a cathartic effect on the human body. Sulfate is not ordinarily removed from water supplies in treatment.

Chloride--Chloride, derived from solution of mineral matter, is one of the most common anions in water. Water having a chloride concentration in excess of 250 ppm is not recommended for human consumption, but many waters containing more can and are being used. Ordinarily, chloride is not removed from water supplies in treatment.

Nitrate--Nitrogen in water may be derived from many sources. Usually, nitrogen is reported as an equivalent of nitrate, which is the most stable phase of biological oxidation in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrite is an intermediate stage of oxidation or reduction in the nitrogen cycle. Surface waters generally contain negligible quantities of nitrate but ground water may contain enough to constitute a health hazard. Small amounts of nitrite in surface water usually indicate pollution. Nitrite is seldom found in ground water. Organic nitrogen, supplied to water by proteins, amino acids, and polypeptides, which are all products of biological processes, usually indicates some degree of pollution. Ammonia nitrogen is a product of microbiological activity and may be regarded as chemical evidence of pollution in raw surface water. In ground water, ammonia nitrogen is probably a result of a simple reduction process. Generally speaking, any form of nitrogen in water would imply that some biological process has introduced it, although some nitrate could be dissolved from inorganic minerals. Water containing more than 90 ppm of nitrate (as NO₃) may cause infant cyanosis (methemoglobinemia) or "blue babies" if it is used in the preparation of formula (Metzler and Stoltenberg, 1950). Nitrate cannot be removed by boiling.

Fluoride--Most natural water contains a small amount of dissolved fluoride. If the fluoride concentration is greater than 1.5 ppm, it may cause "mottled enamel" in children's teeth. Water containing much less than 1.0 ppm does not give optimum protection from dental cavities. Fluoride is added to many water supplies in order to increase the concentration to about 1.0 ppm.

Specific Conductance

Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of a fluid to conduct an electric current. Conductance, the reciprocal of resistance, is often expressed in micromhos per centimeter. As the specific conductance is closely related to the sum of dissolved anions and cations, it is a convenient method for quickly determining the approximate amount of dissolved solids. Conductance in micromhos is multiplied by a factor ranging from about 0.55 to 0.75 to give parts per million of dissolved solids. The proper factor is determined by chemically analyzing water similar to that to be tested and comparing the dissolved-solids content with the specific conductance. The average factor for Ottawa County is 0.6.

Specific conductance can be used as an aid in determining recharge from a body of surface water to a pumped well if there is a marked difference in conductances between surface and ground waters.

Dissolved Solids in Ground Water

Concentrations of dissolved solids in ground water in Ottawa County fall in a general areal pattern, except for local anomalies. Concentrations of calcium (Fig. 29), magnesium (Fig. 30), bicarbonate (Fig. 31), and sulfate (Fig. 32) show that water in the middle part of the Dakota Formation and in the terraces is generally good. The major exception is water of poor quality in the silty terrace deposit at the confluence of Salt Creek and Solomon River. Wells that penetrate a terrace deposit or the Dakota Formation but also reach or approach the Wellington Formation are likely to yield water of poor quality. Water from wells in the upper part of the Dakota is generally not as good as that in the middle part of the Dakota.

Figure 29--Map of Ottawa County showing location of wells and test holes, and calcium concentration in parts per million in water samples. No adjustment is made for local anomalies.

Figure 30--Map of Ottawa County showing location of wells and test holes, and magnesium concentration in parts per million in water samples. No adjustment is made for local anomalies.

Figure 31--Map of Ottawa County showing location of wells and test holes, and bicarbonate concentration in parts per million in water samples. No adjustment is made for local anomalies.

Figure 32--Map of Ottawa County showing location of wells and test holes, and sulfate concentration in parts per million in water samples. No adjustment is made for local anomalies.

The chloride concentration shows a distribution pattern similar to those plotted. Nitrate and fluoride concentrations do not seem to fit any logical pattern. Dissolved iron is very irregular in distribution and believed subject to local control; almost all water from wells contains appreciable amounts of dissolved iron. The distribution of dissolved silica is almost uniform throughout the county. Chemical analyses of water from wells in Ottawa County are given in Table 11.

Table 11--Analyses of water from typical wells in Ottawa County. Analyzed by Howard A. Stoltenberg. Dissolved constituents given in parts per million. One part per million is equivalent to one pound of substance per million pounds of water or 8.33 pounds per million gallons of water. Concentration in equivalents per million is calculated by dividing the concentration in parts per million by the chemical combining weight of the substance or ion.

Well	Depth (feet)	Geologic source	Date of collection	Temp. (°F)	Dissolved solids	Silica (SiO2)	Iron (Fe)	Calcium (Ca)	Magnesium (Mg)	Sodium and Potassium (Na+K)	Bicarbonate (HCO3)	Sulfate (SO4)	Chloride (Cl)	Fluoride (F)	Nitrate (NO3)	Hardness as CaCO3
																Total	Carbonate	Non- carbonate
9-1-12ddb	107.5	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	56	756	7.5	1.6	135	32	73	300	346	12	0.8	1.7	468	246	222
9-1-21bcc	56.0	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	57	455	8.5	14	73	16	48	92	34	93	0.2	137	248	76	172
9-1-26bcb	91.5	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	56	472	9.0	7.0	74	23	56	220	176	24	0.5	1.8	279	180	99
9-1-33bcb	29.3	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	56	571	12	0.93	76	12	112	220	100	126	0.6	24	239	180	59
9-2-9dcd	99.6	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	56	243	25	8.7	36	10	35	201	29	8.0	0.2	1.0	131	131	0.0
9-2-19aad	64.3	Dakota Formation	6-5-1958	58	238	21	17	46	9.0	25	196	32	7.0	0.6	0.7	152	152	0.0
9-2-35cbc	87.0	Dakota Formation	12-10-1957	56.5	316	12	0.69	57	13	35	183	58	34	0.2	17	196	150	46
9-3-10ccd	87.1	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	58	290	14	12	58	14	22	190	61	15	0.4	12	202	156	46
9-3-17daa	166.6	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	56	285	13	9.3	62	11	28	259	30	12	0.2	0.8	200	200	0.0
9-3-27dad	65.6	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	57	319	25	12	66	9.6	32	222	49	27	0.1	1.0	204	182	22
9-3-33cbb	126.7	Dakota Formation	6-5-1958	58	334	18	3.1	73	15	23	251	65	10	0.4	5.8	244	206	38
9-4-10bcd	56.0	Illinoisan terrace	5-31-1958	59	379	36	0.02	89	8.3	32	320	23	19	0.1	15	256	256	0.0
9-4-12aba	42.0	Dakota Formation	12-10-1957	57	270	16	47	44	18	24	188	59	14	0.3	1.5	184	154	30
9-4-26aad	55.4	Dakota Formation	6-5-1958	57	251	21	0.5	36	7.3	38	154	28	20	0.4	24	120	120	0.0
9-5-2aaa	13.4	Wisconsinan terrace	5-22-1958	57	566	25	3.0	117	14	68	412	96	42	0.2	1.0	350	338	12
9-5-2bcc	77.0	Dakota Formation	12-17-1957	56	590	12	11	99	22	88	439	124	27	0.4	1.5	338	338	0.0
9-5-5baa	77.0	Dakota Formation	5-21-1958	55	1,130	16	4.7	240	22	105	407	482	50	0.7	13	690	334	356
9-5-15cdc	99.4	Dakota Formation	12-18-1957	57	591	13	4.5	112	27	64	444	139	9.0	0.4	8.4	390	364	26
9-5-23ddc	11.4	Alluvium	5-21-1958	52	884	16	0.38	230	18	40	403	337	26	0.4	19	648	330	318
10-1-5ccd	78.3	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	56	295	9.0	32	41	16	45	205	24	41	0.8	17	168	168	0.0
10-1-16ddd	98.0	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	56	400	18	0.04	84	19	35	312	40	43	0.3	6.6	288	256	32
10-1-24baa	66.4	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	57	305	19	0.57	57	12	36	259	30	12	0.3	11	192	192	0.0
10-1-28dcc	42.2	Dakota Formation	11-13-1957	57	2,430	16	0.18	290	86	347	246	700	328	0.3	544	1,077	202	875
10-1-36cbb	42.4	Dakota Formation	11-14-1957	57	207	13	4.0	34	8.5	30	185	5.8	12	0.7	12	120	120	0.0
10-2-5aba	100.5	Dakota Formation	12-10-1957	56	213	23	1.9	31	7.9	34	178	9.5	17	0.2	2.9	110	110	0.0
10-2-21aab	82.3	Dakota Formation	12-10-1957	56	245	14	1.2	37	5.7	43	167	33	22	0.4	8.0	116	116	0.0
10-2-33bca	19.6	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	59	177	12	11	38	7.1	13	133	17	10	0.4	14	124	109	15
10-2-33cab	19.7	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	58	392	12	0.12	71	17	39	206	56	46	0.1	49	247	169	78
10-3-6ccc	69.0	Dakota Formation	6-5-1958	54.5	396	25	8.6	59	9.0	60	137	83	67	0.4	25	184	112	72
10-3-25bca	58.8	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	56	161	7.5	19	26	8.5	23	153	8.2	11	0.2	0.9	100	100	0.0
10-3-30cbc	27.2	Wisconsinan terrace	6-5-1958	56.5	200	17	0.67	37	4.3	28	148	20	17	0.4	3.1	110	110	0.0
10-3-32ddc	28.4	Wisconsinan terrace	6-5-1958	57	394	32	0.20	68	15	34	139	28	68	0.2	80	231	114	117
10-4-5aad	35.4	Dakota Formation	12-11-1957	59	264	25	0.26	62	6.2	22	224	16	13	0.1	10	180	180	0.0
10-4-33bdd	16.8	Illinoisan terrace	12-13-1957	57	2,560	25	3.1	175	37	739	503	282	1,055	0.2	1.8	588	412	176
10-5-1aab	73.0	Dakota Formation	5-22-1958	57	507	11	8.1	89	20	64	329	100	33	0.6	27	304	270	34
10-5-9dcd	162.0	Dakota Formation	5-27-1958	58	544	10	20	86	22	84	381	111	40	0.5	2.6	305	305	0.0
10-5-11bab	57.4	Dakota Formation	12-17-1957	57	813	13	0.40	119	49	99	393	149	137	0.4	53	498	322	176
10-5-12aad	92.0	Dakota Formation	5-22-1958	57	438	13	1.4	89	16	46	312	94	20	0.4	6.2	288	256	32
10-5-18aba	96.0	Dakota Formation	12-18-1957	56	506	22	59	107	28	35	400	88	26	0.4	2.2	382	328	54
10-5-19cda	34.6	Dakota Formation	12-18-1957	57	667	25	0.23	144	19	59	390	98	64	0.2	66	437	320	117
10-5-27bbb	49.2	Dakota Formation	5-27-1958	56	327	17	1.5	54	9.1	55	276	23	23	0.3	9.7	172	172	0.0
11-1-2bad	7.8	Wisconsinan terrace	11-13-1957	57	415	15	0.06	67	20	67	322	74	20	0.6	2.4	249	249	0.0
11-1-18aaa	40.2	Dakota Formation	11-14-1957	56	1,140	25	9.2	182	50	111	293	609	18	0.6	1.4	660	240	420
11-1-20ccc	24.7	Wisconsinan terrace and Dakota Formation	11-14-1957	57	388	28	0.11	59	15	45	198	107	6.0	0.4	30	208	162	46
11-1-22ccc	20.2	Wisconsinan terrace and Dakota Formation	11-14-1957	57	720	40	0.78	92	18	113	270	93	72	0.4	159	304	222	82
11-2-7add	75.7	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	57	98	13	0.78	13	3.8	14	71	6.6	5.0	0.1	7.1	48	48	0.0
11-2-8dbb	48.2	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	58.5	90	9	10	13	3.3	14	70	7.8	5.0	0.2	3.1	46	46	0.0
11-2-10cbc	94.3	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	58	467	14	1.0	66	14	75	215	64	62	0.3	66	222	176	46
11-2-20bdc	15.7	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	60	251	19	0.38	31	8.4	48	200	27	10	0.3	2.6	112	112	0.0
11-2-27ada	55.8	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	58	713	7.5	8.4	109	34	88	307	283	39	0.6	1.0	412	252	160
11-2-32abb	70.7	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	58	179	17	8.5	29	4.8	23	110	13	14	0.2	24	92	90	2
11-2-36ccc	19.2	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	59	123	16	0.22	16	3.9	17	73	9.5	5.5	0.2	19	56	56	0.0
11-3-2cdc	58.1	Dakota Formation	11-27-1957	57.5	190	5.5	50	26	7.6	28	85	14	32	0.4	34	96	70	26
11-3-7ccc	46.8	Wisconsinan terrace	12-10-1957	56	754	25	4.7	134	27	108	514	83	122	0.1	1.8	446	422	24
11-3-15ddc	47.2	Dakota Formation	11-27-1957	57	381	12	1.2	59	16	58	288	51	22	0.3	21	213	213	0.0
11-3-31aba	41.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	56	374	16	0.54	53	15	61	256	51	34	0.3	18	194	194	0.0
11-4-1dbd2	152.4	Dakota Formation	10-8-1958		478	21	1.4	73	17	73	253	88	76	0.3	5.3	252	207	45
11-4-13bad	43.7	Wisconsinan terrace	6-13-1958	57	408	25	4.3	97	14	34	395	30	12	0.3	1.2	300	300	0.0
11-4-15daa	47.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	57	263	27	0.64	39	17	22	178	29	11	0.1	30	168	146	22
11-4-20aad	75.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	56	469	16	18	72	20	49	110	229	26	0.3	2.8	262	90	172
11-4-29aaa	91.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	58	285	12	3.5	54	12	23	116	105	20	0.3	1.5	184	95	89
11-5-6ccd	49.7	Dakota Formation	12-18-1957	59	1,860	13	1.4	317	85	101	215	223	231	0.0	779	1,140	176	964
11-5-8adc	100.0	Dakota Formation	6-4-1958	58	156	18	1.1	29	4.8	13	72	43	10	0.3	2.2	92	59	33
11-5-22ada	95.6	Dakota Formation	6-4-1958	58	195	25	3.0	34	9.5	15	124	28	13	0.2	8.9	124	102	22
11-5-32baa	19.6	Dakota Formation	6-4-1958	55	704	15	0.12	118	21	97	354	166	63	0.6	49	381	290	91
11-5-34aad	172.2	Dakota Formation	12-19-1957	57	641	17	3.5	114	15	88	285	177	78	0.3	12	346	234	112
12-1-1ccd	11.2	Wisconsinan terrace	11-14-1957	57	235	9.5	1.8	40	11	22	88	58	32	0.2	19	145	72	73
12-1-25bcb	52.0	Undifferentiated Pleistocene	11-14-1957	57	934	34	0.06	195	54	32	264	258	179	0.2	62	708	216	492
12-1-27add	48.8	Undifferentiated Pleistocene	11-15-1957	57	386	27	0.04	76	29	23	368	19	19	0.2	12	308	302	6.0
12-1-32bbc1	39.7	Wisconsinan terrace	11-15-1957	57	920	21	0.18	206	35	34	264	462	15	0.2	17	658	216	442
12-1-32bbc2	56.0	Wisconsinan terrace	11-25-1957	57	709	21	0.38	158	26	32	256	306	16	0.2	24	501	210	291
12-1-32bbd	40.1	Wisconsinan terrace	11-15-1957	56	690	22	0.09	152	23	36	261	254	22	0.1	53	474	214	260
12-1-32ddd	73.8	Undifferentiated Pleistocene	11-15-1957	56	636	16	5.1	124	36	32	249	288	16	0.2	1.2	458	204	254
12-1-34dcd	43.5	Undifferentiated Pleistocene	11-14-1957	57	2,000	19	2.7	472	52	67	256	1,240	25	0.6	1.1	1,391	210	1,181
12-2-4bba	13.7	Dakota Formation	11-25-1957	59	276	22	0.11	47	7.6	34	166	29	17	0.6	37	148	136	12
12-2-10bcc	38.0	Dakota Formation	11-25-1957	57	826	24	0.38	137	23	98	320	109	82	0.1	195	436	262	174
12-2-11abb	16.6	Dakota Formation	11-26-1957	55	1,300	19	0.50	173	40	185	276	285	164	0.8	301	596	226	370
12-2-21aba	26.7	Wisconsinan terrace	11-25-1957	57	370	28	2.2	82	9.6	38	339	37	7.0	0.2	0.9	244	244	0.0
12-2-32ccc	75.7	Dakota Formation	11-25-1957	58	620	23	7.5	84	32	65	140	302	26	0.4	19	341	115	226
12-2-34ccb	44.4	Illinoisan terrace	11-25-1957	58	546	25	1.4	82	21	85	350	75	75	0.2	16	291	279	12
12-2-36aac	45.8	Wisconsinan terrace	11-25-1957	57	433	21	4.8	100	10	42	349	77	10	0.1	0.7	290	286	4.0
12-3-1dba	47.0	Dakota Formation	5-17-1958		292	22	0.06	64	10	27	259	21	13	0.2	7.1	200	200	0.0
12-3-5bca	53.2	Dakota Formation	5-20-1958	58	315	25	0.17	49	15	26	102	40	44	0.1	66	184	84	100
12-3-9ddd	61.8	Dakota Formation	5-24-1958	57	783	17	23	76	16	209	681	84	42	0.5	3.1	256	256	0.0
12-3-10dad	69.3	Dakota Formation	11-27-1957	57	1,540	6.5	65	155	59	294	67	498	491	0.5	1.5	629	65	574
12-3-24bad	30.0	Dakota Formation	5-26-1958	58	268	13	5.4	41	9.6	43	204	40	16	0.3	5.3	142	142	0.0
12-4-1bbc	100.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	58	330	17	38	59	6.6	36	83	134	24	0.2	12	174	68	106
12-4-9abd	92.8	Dakota Formation	5-26-1958	58	1,330	13	8.4	175	58	152	78	359	225	0.2	310	675	64	611
12-4-11cdd	105.5	Dakota Formation	12-19-1957	57	1,840	13	4.9	259	133	159	468	618	271	0.4	159	1,192	384	808
12-4-19daa	24.5	Dakota Formation	12-19-1957	58	772	19	0.69	144	39	58	324	259	56	0.1	37	520	266	254
12-4-21bbc	38.0	Dakota Formation	6-3-1958	57.5	825	16	0.06	182	19	52	316	53	86	0.4	261	532	259	273
12-4-32ada	22.2	Wisconsinan terrace	6-3-1958	57	448	29	3.8	119	14	24	423	42	11	0.1	1.2	354	347	7.0
12-4-35bab	34.0	Illinoisan terrace	6-3-1958	57	513	32	1.1	95	12	79	456	42	27	1.0	1.3	286	286	0.0
12-5-7cbc	34.6	Wisconsinan terrace	6-4-1958	56	1,120	23	3.9	266	18	83	356	366	151	0.4	40	738	292	446
12-5-11dcd	59.0	Dakota Formation	6-4-1958	58	398	22	9.3	83	10	45	307	32	26	0.2	29	248	248	0.0
12-5-16bdd	49.5	Illinoisan terrace	4-15-1958		495	26	0.03	104	14	49	350	89	18	0.1	23	317	287	30
12-5-19ada	41.5	Dakota Formation	5-20-1958	58	972	13	0.45	139	46	133	384	316	118	0.6	17	536	315	221
12-5-26dcd	23.0	Wisconsinan terrace	5-20-1958	57	1,360	20	9.4	197	56	165	268	376	223	0.4	190	722	220	502
12-5-28aba	42.0	Dakota Formation	5-20-1958	58	235	22	0.17	37	13	27	189	28	14	0.4	0.4	146	146	0.0
12-5-30cbc	85.0	Dakota Formation	5-2-1958	57	746	25	3.7	137	26	74	259	165	116	0.7	75	449	212	237
12-5-33cca	64.0	Dakota Formation	5-2-1958	57.5	522	16	0.18	107	27	38	323	126	40	0.3	8.8	378	265	113

Generally, the fact that a well may be in either an artesian or nonartesian aquifer of the Dakota has no bearing on the quality of water. Figure 33 shows three typical wells in northern Ottawa County. Well A is an artesian well, B is nonartesian, and C may be either artesian or nonartesian. The wells are a few miles apart, yet there is close agreement in the quantities of dissolved solids. This situation seems prevalent throughout the county.

Figure 33--Graphic logs and locations of artesian and nonartesian wells showing minor variations in ionic concentrations in water.

Dissolved Solids in Surface Water

The quantity of dissolved solids in surface water is given in Tables 12 and 13 for Solomon and Saline Rivers, respectively. The sampling station on Solomon River is at Beloit, in Mitchell County, about 20 miles northwest of Ottawa County. The records at this station, the only data available, are presented to give some indication of the quality of water farther downstream. The sampling station on Saline River is at the gaging station half a mile south of Tescott. These data were compiled and published by the Division of Sanitation, Kansas State Board of Health (1958).

Table 12--Analyses of water from Solomon River at waterworks intake at Beloit. Analyzed by Division of Sanitation, Kansas State Board of Health (from Chemical Quality of Surface Waters in Kansas, 1957). Dissolved constituents given in parts per million. One part per million is equivalent to 1 pound of substance per million pounds of water or 8.33 pounds per million gallons of water.

Date	Discharge (cfs)	Turbidity	Dissolved solids (TS)	Silica (SiO2)	Iron (Fe)	Calcium (Ca)	Magnesium (Mg)	Sodium and Potassium (Na+K)	Bicarbonate (HCO3)	Sulfate (SO4)	Chloride (Cl)	Nitrate (NO3)	Fluoride (F)	Hardness as CaCO3
														Total	Carbonate	Non- carbonate
11-14-1956	0	60	2,679	9.0	0.37	144	51	781	410	471	1,020	0.8	0.5	568	336	232
12-10-1956	0.2	5	1,779	16	0.54	155	38	449	488	329	550	1.2	0.4	542	400	142
1-22-1957	6.6	20	2,037	8.0	0.22	158	46	533	486	382	670	1.3	0.3	583	398	185
2-19-1957	9.7	70	1,242	5.0	0.43	94	29	325	307	246	390	2.2	0.3	353	252	101
3-19-1957	9.3	40	1,300	3.0	0.43	101	32	334	307	268	410	1.0	0.3	383	252	131
4-17-1957	22	90	553	7.0	0.39	91	18	81	249	150	80	2.8	0.4	301	204	97
5-15-1957	1,910	8,000	130	9.0		29	5.7	9.0	112	16	3.0	2.7	0.3	96	92	4.0
6-19-1957	2,150	4,500	127	11		29	4.8	8.5	110	14	2.0	3.1	0.2	92	90	2.0
7-16-1957	1,420	800	215	16		43	8.4	19	146	40	14	2.2	0.2	142	120	22
8-20-1957	154	200	385	9.0	0.85	62	9.1	65	193	72	70	2.8	0.2	192	158	34
9-18-1957	126	200	580	11	0.64	99	17	85	273	134	94	5.8	0.2	317	224	93
10-22-1957		120	729	16	0.41	120	19	115	333	164	127	4.2	0.2	278	273	105
11-25-1957		15	759	15	0.29	124	20	120	351	176	125	6.2	0.3	392	288	104
12-10-1957		20	764	7.5	0.33	114	26	125	334	187	135	4.9	0.3	392	274	118

Table 13--Analyses of water from Saline River at gaging station south of Tescott Analyzed by Division of Sanitation, Kansas State Board of Health (from Chemical Quality of Surface Waters in Kansas, 1957). Dissolved constituents given in parts per million. One part per million is equivalent to 1 pound of substance per million pounds of water or 8.33 pounds per million gallons of water.

Date	Discharge (cfs)	Turbidity	Dissolved solids (TS)	Silica (SiO2)	Iron (Fe)	Calcium (Ca)	Magnesium (Mg)	Sodium and Potassium (Na+K)	Bicarbonate (HCO3)	Sulfate (SO4)	Chloride (Cl)	Nitrate (NO3)	Fluoride (F)	Hardness as CaCO3
														Total	Carbonate	Non- carbonate
10-9-1956	5.8	70	4,424	10	0.55	179	81	1,358	342	685	1,940	2.1	0.5	780	280	500
11-17-1956	8.6	60	2,463	6.5	0.35	113	42	749	281	382	1,030	1.8	0.5	454	230	224
12-14-1956	9.2	5	5,065	11	0.26	193	93	1,574	449	741	2,230	1.3	0.5	864	368	496
1-23-1957	8.6	20	5,613	4.5	0.26	184	108	1,767	442	849	2,480	1.5	0.6	903	362	541
2-18-1957	20	20	3,969	4.0	0.18	141	74	1,242	332	597	1,745	2.6	0.5	656	272	384
3-20-1957	16	70	4,117	5.0	0.53	155	80	1,270	342	652	1,785	0.8	0.5	716	280	436
4-24-1957	71	250	2,215	5.0	1.2	140	44	615	257	413	870	0.8	0.3	531	211	320
5-16-1957	2,400	6,000	219	7.5		39	5.5	34	139	29	33	2.4	0.2	120	114	6.0
6-21-1957	5,440	3,000	162	11		34	5.6	15	120	23	10	4.0	0.2	108	98	10
7-23-1957	871	6,000	772	11		80	14	180	171	156	242	4.2	0.4	257	140	117
8-20-1957	326	500	2,116	10	2.7	148	43	568	268	412	800	2.9	0.4	546	220	326
10-25-1957		3,600	1,060	7.5		99	19	263	202	195	372	4.0	0.5	325	166	159
11-26-1957		20	1,954	13	0.41	162	43	494	366	376	680	5.3	0.4	580	300	280
12-13-1957		25	2,090	10	0.38	167	44	540	377	398	740	5.3	0.4	598	309	289

Turbidity increases with an increase in discharge because of greater sediment-carrying capacity of the river. Increased discharge proportionately decreases the percentage of dissolved solids per unit volume. Flood water (precipitation) is relatively free of dissolved solids, and the discharge of ground water containing more dissolved solids is diminished by a rise in river level. Where a river is hydraulically connected to ground water under artesian pressure, the discharge of ground water to the river will be decreased because of a decrease in slope of the piezometric surface. Where the river is hydraulically connected to ground water under nonartesian conditions, the river will discharge to ground water. Flood water or discharge in appreciable excess of base flow is of very good chemical quality except for turbidity or suspended solids.

Water for Irrigation Use

The following discussion is adapted from Soil, the Agriculture Yearbook of 1957 (Bower and Fireman, 1957), Agriculture Handbook 60 (U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954), U. S. Department of Agriculture, and ground-water reports of the State Geological Survey of Kansas.

Crops require a certain amount of water and mineral matter for growth. If dissolved solids in irrigation water are excessive, they cause dehydration of vegetation, and sodium disperses clay particles, reducing aeration and percolation of water in the soil, which will eventually cause the soil to become unproductive. Saline soils contain excessive amounts of soluble salts, which consist mainly of sodium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and sulfate, and secondarily of potassium, bicarbonate, carbonate, nitrate, and boron. Alkali soils contain an excessive amount of absorbed sodium; in soils, sodium ion is exchangeable with calcium and magnesium and will persist after most soluble salts are removed. Soluble salts can be removed from soil by leaching, and absorbed sodium can be removed by replacing it by three types of chemical amendments. These are soluble calcium salts (calcium chloride and calcium sulfate or gypsum), calcium salts of low solubility (calcium carbonate or limestone), and acids or acid formers (sulfuric acid, sulfur, and iron and aluminum sulfate). The choice of chemical amendments depends on their solubility in available water and on the salinity and pH of the soil.

Irrigation water may be classified from data on the total concentration of soluble salts and the sodium-adsorption ratio (SAR). The most convenient measure of the amount of dissolved salts is the electrical (specific) conductance. The SAR may be determined by the formula

in which the concentrations are expressed in equivalents per million. The nomogram (Fig. 34) will readily solve this equation for the SAR if the sodium, in milliequivalents per liter, is plotted on scale A, and the sum of calcium and magnesium, in milliequivalents per liter, is plotted on scale B. A line connecting these points will pass through the SAR scale and give the SAR value at the intersection. The suitability of water for irrigation may then be determined by plotting the SAR value (sodium hazard) and the conductivity value (salinity hazard) on the diagram in Figure 35.

Figure 34--Nomogram for sodium-adsorption ratio of water.

Figure 35--Classification of irrigation waters. (After U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954.)

Low-sodium water (S1) can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of developing harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. Medium-sodium water (S2) can be used safely on coarse-textured or organic soils having good permeability, but it will present an appreciable sodium hazard in certain fine-textured soils, especially those not leached thoroughly. High-sodium water (S3) may produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and will require special soil management such as good drainage, thorough leaching, and addition of organic matter. Very high sodium water (S4) is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation unless special action is taken, such as the addition of gypsum to the soil.

Low-salinity water (C1) can be used for irrigation of most crops on most soils with little likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Medium-salinity water (C2) can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Crops of moderate salt tolerance, such as potatoes, corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa, can be irrigated with C2 water without special practices. High-salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Very high salinity water (C4) can be used only on certain crops and then only if special practices are followed. Thus, it is clear that good drainage, careful soil management, proper irrigation techniques, and good water are necessary for prolonged satisfactory irrigation.

Water quality is sufficiently variable in Ottawa County to warrant careful examination prior to extensive irrigation. The water from the few irrigation wells in Ottawa County was not analyzed.

Summary of Kansas Water Law

The following information is summarized from the Report on the Laws of Kansas Pertaining to the Beneficial Use of Water (Kansas Water Resources Board, 1956) and The Kansas Law of Water Rights (Hutchins, 1957).

From the time Kansas was originated, as a territory in 1854 and as a state in 1861, until 1945, water litigation was based on two separate doctrines. The first to be applied was the common-law riparian doctrine. Basically, it stated that water rights were attached to the land contiguous to stream banks and were real property rights. At first this was interpreted to mean that the riparian owner was entitled to have the water course flow through his lands undiminished in quantity and unaltered in quality. In time, this was altered to mean that upper riparian owners were permitted to use stream water on their land and for domestic purposes as long as they were not wasteful of water and used it with reasonable regard to the effect on other riparian owners of the same stream.

Ground-water law was more perplexing. Different sets of rules covered different situations without particular regard to physical principles of ground-water flow.

The common-law riparian doctrine is modified by the American, or reasonable-use, doctrine which follows the philosophy that a man must use his property in such a manner as not to injure that of another. Directly applied to water, the appropriation doctrine states that all unused water belongs to all the people of the state. The first person to divert water from a surface or ground source and use it for beneficial purposes has a better right to continue using the same amount than a person who starts, at a later date, to use water from the same source. Simply stated, the first in time is first in right. Virtually everywhere that the appropriation doctrine is followed, it is verified that the use must be a beneficial one.

In 1945, the Kansas legislature provided an effective means of acquiring appropriation rights by creating a water-appropriation act. A brief summary of the procedure for acquiring an appropriation right is given in Kansas Water Resources Board, Bulletin 3, 1957, pages 8 and 9:

To obtain the right to appropriate' and use a certain amount of water, a person must apply in writing to the Chief Engineer of the Division of Water Resources of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture for a certain amount of water from a named source. If the Chief Engineer finds that the appropriation would be in the public interest, he approves the application and tells the person to proceed with the diversion and application of water to a beneficial use within reasonable limitations and within a reasonable time. When the applicant constructs his diversion works and starts using the water, he is required to notify the Chief Engineer. If after an inspection, the Chief Engineer finds that the applicant has completed the appropriation as authorized, he issues a certificate of appropriation in duplicate. The applicant is supposed to record one copy with the register of deeds of the county where the point of diversion is located. The duplicate of the record stays in the Chief Engineer's office. The applicant then has an appropriation right.

The Water Appropriation Act of 1945 and amendments of 1957 (primarily concerning definition of terms, duties and procedures of personnel involved, appropriation priorities, and the mechanics of appropriation) provide an adequate framework for blending equity by law with physical principles of water behavior.

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Kansas Geological Survey, Geology
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