Skip Navigation

Republic County and Northern Cloud County

Prev Page--Geology || Next Page--More on Ground Water


Ground Water

Source

Ground water is the water that supplies springs and wells. In Republic County and northern Cloud County ground water is derived entirely from precipitation (rain or snow). Part of the water that falls as rain or snow is carried away by surface runoff and is lost to streams, part of it may evaporate or be absorbed by vegetation and transpired into the atmosphere. The part that escapes runoff, evaporation, and transpiration percolates slowly downward through the soil and underlying strata until it reaches the water table where it joins the body of ground water in what is known as the zone of saturation.

The ground water percolates slowly through the rocks in directions determined by the topography and geologic structure until it is discharged eventually through springs or wells, through seepage into streams, or by evaporation and transpiration in bottom lands adjacent to the streams. Most of the water obtained from shallow wells and springs in this area is obtained largely from precipitation in the general vicinity.

Occurrence

The rocks and surficial deposits that form the crust of the earth are, in general, not solid throughout, but contain numerous open spaces, called voids or interstices, and it is in these spaces that water is found below the surface of the land and from which it is recovered in part through springs and wells. There are many kinds of rocks and they differ greatly in the number, size, shape, and arrangement of their interstices and hence, in their water-bearing properties. The mode of occurrence of ground water in any region, therefore, is determined by the geology of the region.

The interstices of rocks range in size from minute pores of microscopic dimensions to openings several inches in width and they can be divided into two classes-primary and secondary. The primary or original interstices were formed contemporaneously with the formation of the rock; the secondary interstices were developed by processes that affected the rock after it had been formed. In Republic County the water-bearing rocks are all of sedimentary origin, and the openings that hold the water are (1) the open spaces between the grains of the rocks (primary interstices) and (2) the joints, crevices, and open bedding planes which have resulted from fracturing of the rocks (secondary interstices).

The amount of water that can be stored in any rock depends upon the porosity of the rock. Porosity is expressed quantitatively as the percentage of the total volume of rock that is occupied by interstices. When all its interstices are filled with water, a rock is said to be saturated. The amount of water that a rock will yield when saturated is known as the specific yield. The specific yield of a water-bearing formation is defined by Meinzer (1923a, p. 28) as the ratio of (1) the volume of water which, after being saturated, it will yield by gravity to (2) its own volume. This ratio is generally stated as a percentage.

The amount of water a given rock can hold is determined by its porosity, but the rate at which it will yield water to wells is determined by its permeability. The permeability of a rock is its capacity for transmitting water under a hydraulic gradient and is measured by the rate at which it will transmit water through a given cross section under a given loss of head per unit of distance. Certain beds of dense clay and shale may have higher porosities than beds of coarse sand; but, because of the small size of their interstices, they may transmit no water under ordinary differences of head and may be considered as impervious. Rocks differ greatly in their degree of permeability, according to the number and size of their interstices and the extent to which these interstices open into one another.

Artesian Conditions

Ground water may be said to have normal pressure, subnormal pressure, or artesian pressure. The static level of ground water under normal pressure coincides with the water table or the upper surface of the zone of saturation. Under subnormal pressure the static level is below this surface and under artesian pressure, above it. Artesian water is ordinarily under sufficient pressure to rise appreciably above the point at which it is encountered. A well that flows at the land surface is known as a flowing artesian well.

Artesian or confined conditions are said to exist where a water-bearing bed is overlain by an impermeable or relatively impermeable bed that dips from its outcrop to the discharge area. Water enters the water-bearing bed at the outcrop and percolates slowly downward to be held in the water-bearing bed by the overlying confining bed. Down the dip from the outcrop area the water exerts considerable pressure against the confining bed, so that when a well is drilled through the confining bed into the water-bearing bed the pressure is released and the water rises in the well. If the water is under sufficient pressure, and if the altitude of the land surface at the well is lower than the altitude of the outcrop of the water-bearing bed, the water may rise high enough to flow at the surface. In places where there are lenses or beds of relatively impermeable clay or silt at the level of the water table, the water encountered below such lenses or beds will rise to the level of the surrounding water table, but such water is under normal pressure and is not artesian.

Although there are no known flowing wells in Republic County at the present time, the water in the Dakota formation at many places in the southern and western parts of the county seems to have been under slight artesian head. Logan (1897, p. 213) reported that--

In some places on account of the local dip of the underlying sandstone, the water is forced through the shales and comes to the surface in the form of salt springs. In one of the Republic County salt marshes an artesian flow was obtained with sufficient pressure to lift the water 12 feet high.

The Water Table and Movement of Ground Water

The permeable rocks that lie below a certain level in Republic County, and elsewhere generally, are saturated with water under hydrostatic pressure. :These saturated rocks are said to be in the zone of saturation, the upper surface of which is called the water table. The permeable rocks that lie above the water table may be said to be in the zone of aeration. The water that enters the soil at the surface moves slowly down through the zone of aeration to the zone of saturation, except that which is retained in the zone of aeration by capillary action. In fine-grained material the earth is always moist several feet above the water table due to capillarity, and this moist belt is called the capillary fringe. Water in the capillary fringe or in transit in the zone of aeration is not available to wells, hence wells must reach the water table before water enters them.

Shape and Slope

The water table is not a static, level surface, but rather it is generally a sloping surface that shows many irregularities caused by differences in permeability and thickness of the water-bearing material and by unequal additions of water to or removal from the ground-water reservoir at different places.

Irregularities in the water table may be caused in several ways. In places where conditions are exceptionally good for recharge, the water table may be built up to form a mound or low ridge from which the water spreads out, but this spreading takes place very slowly because of the frictional resistance offered by the small interstices through which the water must move. In material of low permeability these mounds or ridges may be very sharp, but in very permeable material, the slopes generally are gentle. Depressions in the water table indicate places where ground water is being discharged and may occur along streams that are below the normal level of the water table or in places where water is withdrawn by wells or plants.

The permeability of the water-bearing material affects the slope of the water table. If the water is moving through fine-grained sediments the frictional resistance to the movement of the water is great, requiring a steeper slope than when the same quantity of water moves through a more permeable material. A steeply sloping water table is observed on the west side of Republican River south of the City of Republic where the alluvium contains almost no permeable gravel and sand.

The shape and slope of the water table in the Republican Valley between the Nebraska state line and Concordia and in part of the Belleville formation in the northern part of Republic County are shown on the map (Pl. 8) by contours drawn on the water table. Each contour line has been drawn through points on the water table having approximately the same altitude. Collectively they show the configuration of the upper surface of the ground-water body in much the same manner as contours on topographic maps show the general shape of the land surface. The altitude of the water surface in each of the wells that were used in compiling the map has been referred to sea-level datum. Ground water moves in the direction of maximum slope, which is at right angles to the contours.

The contour map indicates that the water table slopes toward Republican River from both sides and that ground water is discharging into the river. Near the middle of the valley, the contours trend almost at right angles to the axis of the valley, and the spacing of the contours indicates an average hydraulic gradient or slope of about 5 feet to the mile.

The contour map also indicates that in the ancestral Republican River Valley between the City of Republic and Chester, Nebraska, the water table slopes toward the old channel from both sides. Thus, the water moves toward the old channel from both sides and then moves down the old valley to the northeast, crossing into Nebraska near Chester. The flatness of the water table in the ancestral Republican River Valley is caused by an increase in the permeability and thickness of the water-bearing materials from the edges toward the middle of the valley and from the southwest to the northeast. The thickness of the saturated gravel and sand deposits ranges from less than 5 feet along the edges to about 100 feet in the deeper parts of the channel and from about 40 feet near test hole 36 northeast of the City of Republic to more than 100 feet near Chester.

A ground-water mound or divide occurs about 3 miles northeast of the City of Republic. It is caused by the slope of the bedrock floor formed by the underlying Cretaceous rocks and by the excellent opportunity for ground-water recharge in a large area of sand dunes, there being little or no intervening loess between the capping sand dunes and the underlying Pleistocene gravel and sand.

In the rest of the county the water table in general follows the configuration of the land surface but data are not available in the outcrop area of the Dakota formation on which definite conclusions may be based. However, the water levels in a few scattered wells indicate that in general the ground water in the Dakota formation in Republic County is moving to the southeast toward the outcrop area.

Relation to Topography

Except in the Belleville formation the water table in Republic County follows in a general way the configuration of the surface; it rises under the hills and sinks under the valleys but its slope is nearly everywhere less than that of the land. In the Belleville formation, however, the depth to the water table is largely controlled by the slope of the bedrock floor formed on the underlying Cretaceous rocks and the water table is practically independent of the surface drainage. A 1,600-foot contour on the land surface roughly parallels Republican River about 3 miles northeast of the City of Republic. The depth to the water table at test hole 26 (Pl. 2) which is near the deepest part of the ancestral Republican River Valley is 37.5 feet. Following a circuitous route the 1,600-foot contour crosses U. S. Highway 81 at about the deepest part of the channel which is not far from the Nebraska state line. The water level is 123.6 feet below the land surface in test hole 4 in the NE cor. of sec. 3, T. 1 S., R. 3 W. Between test holes 4 and 26 the land surface rises in places to an altitude of about 1,680 feet. At test hole 22 the water level is 166.7 feet below the land surface.

The relation of the water table to topography is affected and often obscured by variations in the permeability of the underlying rocks. An impervious layer may bring the water table to the surface on a hillside, resulting in a spring. This condition can be observed in places where the Jetmore chalk member of the Greenhorn limestone crops out on a hillside. During periods of heavy precipitation water percolates downward through fractures and other openings until it reaches an impervious layer of limestone or shale. Moving horizontally along the impervious layer, it emerges or seeps out on hillsides and road cuts.

Fluctuations in Water Level

The water table in Republic County is not a stationary surface, but a surface that fluctuates up and down much like the water level in a lake or reservoir. However, over a long period of time a condition of approximate equilibrium exists between the amount of water that is added annually to ground-water storage and the amount that is discharged annually by both artificial and natural means. In general, the water table rises when the amount of recharge exceeds the amount of discharge and declines when the discharge is greater than the recharge. Thus, changes in the water levels in wells indicate to what extent the ground-water reservoir is being depleted or replenished.

The factors controlling the rise of the water table in Republic County are (1) the amount of precipitation within the county that passes through the soil and descends to the water table; (2) the amount of water entering the county beneath the surface from areas farther west; and (3) the amount of influent seepage that reaches the underground reservoir from Republican River and some of the creeks at times when the water level in the river or creeks is higher than the adjoining water table. All these factors depend upon precipitation either in the county or in the Republican River Basin. The relation between the amount of precipitation and the level at which the water stands in wells is complicated by several factors. After a long dry spell the soil moisture becomes depleted through evaporation and transpiration and when a rain does occur the soil moisture must be replenished before any water can descend to the water table. During the winter when the ground is frozen the water falling on the surface is hindered from reaching the water table, and during the hot summer some of the water that falls as rain is lost directly into the air by evaporation. Where the water table stands comparatively far below the surface it fluctuates less in response to precipitation than it does where it is comparatively shallow.

The factors controlling the decline of the water table are (1) the amount of water pumped from wells; (2) the amount of water absorbed directly from the water table by plants; (3) the amount lost from the ground-water reservoir by evaporation; (4) the amount lost through springs; (5) the amount of ground water passing beneath the surface into adjacent areas; (6) and the amount discharged as effluent seepage into the streams.

Fluctuations of ground-water levels in Republic County are related primarily to the amount of recharge received from precipitation and to the amount of discharge of ground water by transpiration and effluent seepage. The fluctuations caused by precipitation are considered under the section on recharge; the fluctuations caused by transpiration and effluent seepage are considered under the section on discharge.

Recharge

The addition of water to the zone of saturation is known as ground-water recharge. Ground-water recharge in Republic County is derived from precipitation within the county, from influent streams, and from subsurface inflow from areas to the north and west of the county.

Recharge from Local Precipitation

Most of the ground-water recharge in Republic County is derived from precipitation, which averages about 26 inches annually in Republic County. Part of the precipitation runs off through surface channels, part is evaporated, part is transpired by plants, and part seeps downward to the the zone of saturation and recharges the ground-water reservoir. When the amount of water absorbed in the soil zone is greater than can be held up by capillary forces opposing the pull of gravity, the balance will move downward to the zone of saturation. Usually the belt of soil moisture is largely depleted by the end of the growing season, owing to the removal of much of the available water in this belt by evaporation and transpiration. This deficiency must first be satisfied before recharge takes place.

Other things being equal, the fraction of water that is absorbed by the soil and becomes available as recharge depends upon the character of the soil and of the underlying material through which the water must pass enroute to the zone of saturation. Thus, the soils in the loess-covered areas in north-central Republic County, being compact, absorb water very slowly, whereas the sandy soils in the dune-sand area northeast of the City of Republic, being porous, absorb considerable water and transmit it downward to the water table.

In the summer of 1942, nine observation wells (40, 95, 158, 172, 188, 202, 204, 209, and 230) were selected in Republic County, and periodic measurements of water level in them were begun in order to obtain information concerning the fluctuations of storage in the ground-water reservoir. The descriptions of the wells and the waterlevel measurements for 1942 are given in the annual water-level report of the Federal Geological Survey for that year (Meinzer and Wenzel, 1944, pp. 147-149). Subsequent water-level measurements will be published in ensuing annual water-level reports. The descriptions of the wells are included in Table 22 of this report.

Of the nine wells, two (172 and 230) are in the alluvium in the Republican River Valley, two (202 and 204) are in the Dakota formation, three (40, 95, and 209) are in Pleistocene deposits of sand and gravel, and the other two (158 and 188) are in the soil mantle and weathered zone of the Carlile shale. Measurements were discontinued in well 204 in 1943 and in wells 172 and 95 in 1945. The hydrographs of the water levels in these wells except 204 and the cumulative departure of the precipitation at Belleville from normal are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4--Hydrographs showing the relation between the monthly fluctuations of the water levels in eight wells in Republic County and the cumulative departure from normal precipitation at Belleville.

Hydrographs showing the relation between the monthly fluctuations of the water levels in eight wells in Republic County and the cumulative departure from normal precipitation at Belleville.

In Figure 4 correlation between the cumulative departure from normal precipitation and some of the hydrographs is suggested. Others show very little correlation. The correlation depends much on the source of the water. The hydrographs of wells in the alluvium of the Republican River Valley (172 and 188) correlate in a measure with the cumulative departure from normal precipitation, but there is practically no correlation between the cumulative departure from normal precipitation and the hydro graphs of wells in the Dakota formation (202 and 204) and in the Pleistocene deposits of sand and gravel (40 and 95). The peaks on the hydrograph for well 172 are caused by recharge from the river. If the peaks are eliminated the hydro graph is very similar to the hydrograph for well 230 and in general it follows the seasonal cumulative departures from normal precipitation.

The logs of test holes in the Republican River Valley and the cross sections in Plate 5 indicate that the material above the water table is not as permeable as that at greater depths. Most of the surficial material is silty or sandy, however, and very little of it is clay. Throughout most of the valley, conditions for recharge from precipitation seem to be good. That recharge to the water table in the alluvium is high is shown by the hydrographs of wells 172 and 230 in Figure 4. The peaks on the hydrograph of well 172 are caused by flood stages of the river as it is located about 100 feet from the river. The water table in the vicinity of well 230 is recharged by local precipitation and it has had an annual fluctuation of more than 2 feet during the period of record.

In an area of several square miles that lies northeast of the City of Republic, the conditions for recharge from precipitation are excellent. Part of the area is underlain by dune sand that has a very high infiltration capacity. From Plate 5 it can be seen that the gravel and sand deposits of the Belleville formation are near the surface in this area. To the northeast the gravel and sand deposits dip below thick deposits of loess. Near the intersection of U. S. Highway 81 with the Nebraska state line the overlying loess deposits have a thickness of about 100 feet. The amount of groundwater recharge through these thick deposits of loess must be very low, as indicated by the hydrographs of wells 40 and 95 (Fig. 4). The ground water supplying the wells in this area is derived from recharge along the south edge of the channel, where the loess is thin or absent, from the recharge area northeast of the City of Republic, as shown on Plate 8, and from the movement of ground water in a southeasterly direction from a recharge area in Nebraska.

Conditions for ground-water recharge in the rest of the county are only fair. The water levels in the surficial deposits overlying the Carlile shale have a wide range in fluctuation but the specific yield of the material is low (see hydrographs of wells 158 and 188 in Fig. 4). The amount of recharge depends on the topography, soil cover, and vegetation. Intensity of ground-water recharge in the southeastern part of the county where the Dakota formation crops out depends on whether the exposed material is sandstone or clay. Clay and shale in the Dakota are nearly impervious and permit practically no ground-water recharge but if the sandstone is exposed at the surface as it is in many places or if it is mantled by a thin permeable layer of soil there will be an appreciable amount of ground-water recharge (see hydrograph of well 202 in Fig. 4).

Conditions are not favorable for ground-water recharge in the outcrop area of the Greenhorn limestone. Some members of the Greenhorn are practically impervious. Moreover, the land surface generally has a steep slope, resulting in high surface runoff. Most of the recharge in the Greenhorn limestone occurs where upturned permeable layers are exposed, permitting ground-water to move down the dip from the exposure.

Percolation from Outside of Area

The ground water moves easterly and southeasterly from Jewell County into Republic County and, as shown by the water-table contours on Plate 8, in a southeasterly direction into a part of Republic County from Nebraska. The amount of water moving in from Jewell County is small for the saturated water-bearing material at the county line averages less than 15 feet in thickness and is not very permeable. As indicated by the logs of the test holes near the Nebraska state line (Pl. 5), the saturated gravel and sand deposits there range in thickness from 50 to 100 feet and are very permeable.

Although the Dakota formation is exposed at several places in Republic County, much of the water that it contains undoubtedly enters the formation from outcrop areas outside the county. The regional dip of the Dakota is northwestward and it might at first be assumed that the ground water is percolating down dip to the northwest from the outcrop area in the southeastern part of the county. Limited data based on the water levels in 12 wells (9, 99, 151, 152, 154, 193, 194, 202, 208, 215, 218, and 243) indicate, however, that the ground water in the Dakota formation is moving in a southeasterly direction toward the outcrop area. There are local irregularities in the water table in the Dakota caused by creeks that have cut below the water table. The water levels in some of the wells do not necessarily represent the static water level in the Dakota formation for, unless the ground water in the overlying formations is tightly cased off, the measured water level will be an equilibrium level between the water level in the Dakota formation and water levels in the overlying formations. Also, in many places the static water level varies with the depth of penetration into the Dakota formation.

Seepage from Streams and Ponds

Two factors determine whether or not a stream is capable of supplying water to the underground reservoir: (1) the water surface of the stream must be above the water table and (2) the material between the stream channel and the water table must be sufficiently permeable to permit water to percolate downward and outward from the stream. It seems unlikely that much ground-water recharge is derived from the intermittent streams in Republic County. With the exception of Republican River, which carries runoff the year around from other areas upstream, the perennial streams of the area are those toward which ground water is moving and along which it is discharging as effluent seepage. Along the small streams that carry only surface discharge the opportunity for ground-water recharge occurs only for short periods during and following storms that produce surface runoff. However, many small streams and gullies are dammed, forming ponds or surface reservoirs which undoubtedly contribute some ground-water recharge.

The water-table contours in Plate 8 indicate that in the Republican River Valley the water table is higher than the stream surface and hence that the ground water is moving toward the river. Under normal conditions there would be no ground-water recharge from the river. Under conditions of heavy withdrawal of ground water resulting in a lowering of the water table below the stream surface, or during flood stages of the river, however, the direction of movement of the ground water with respect to the river would be reversed and there would then be recharge from the river. An inspection of the cross sections of the valley given in Plate 5 shows that the bed of the river rests in permeable sand and gravel. The bed of the river may be silted over at different times and at different places but at other times and places the bed is composed of sand and gravel. There are many sand bars along the river that can be seen at times of low stage. Conditions seem to be favorable for recharge from the river if the water table declines below the stream surface or below the bed of the river.

The infiltration capacities of 68 soils were determined by Free, Browning, and Musgrave (1940, pp. 12-14). Five of these soils permitted essentially no infiltration; the other 63 soils had infiltration capacities ranging from 0.1 inch to 5 inches an hour. The 68 soils had an average infiltration capacity of 0.88 inch an hour. Babcock and Cushing (1942, p. 54) found that the bed of Queen Creek in Pinal County, Arizona, had an average infiltration capacity of 0.54 inch an hour. At times when the bed of Republican River is stilted over the infiltration capacity probably is low and may be comparable to that of the soils noted above. At other times when. the bed of the river is composed of sand and gravel, however, the infiltration capacity is much higher than that of most soils. It seems unlikely that the infiltration capacity of the bed of the river would ever be as low as 0.1 inch an hour, which was the value obtained for tight clay soils. Rough computations indicate that if the bed of Republican River should have an infiltration capacity equal to the bed of Queen Creek in Arizona, or even equal to the minimum of the 63 soils given above (0.1 inch an hour), that the potential amount of influent seepage from Republican River would depend not so much on the infiltration capacity of the bed of the river as on the availability of stream flow. Although the recharge from the river might at times be limited by the amount of available stream flow, past records indicate that the amount of stream flow would be more than adequate to supply the needs of probable near-future groundwater developments in the valley.

The rate of infiltration from the river would be governed somewhat by the temperature of the water. The viscosity of water increases with a decrease in temperature, resulting in a decrease in infiltration. In some areas where a large part of water pumped from wells is derived directly from stream flow, the yields of wells have been observed to decline during the winter when the viscosity of the water becomes appreciably higher (Thompson, 1942, p. 467). The relation between water temperature and rate of seepage from canals has been studied by Stearns, Crandall, and Steward (1938, Fig. 14).

Discharge

Ground water is discharged in Republic County by transpiration and evaporation, seepage into streams, ground-water outflow from the county, and discharge by springs and wells. The rate at which it is discharged by natural processes varies with many factors, but especially with the stage of the water table and with the season of the year. Local differences in conditions cause more ground water to be discharged in some parts of the county than in others. More water is withdrawn from the zone of saturation by transpiration from plants in areas adjacent to Republican River and other perennial streams than in areas where the water table lies at great depth. Natural discharge of ground water also takes place by slow movement of ground water out of the county toward the south and east. The amount of water that moves out of the county is approximately the amount that enters from the west plus additions to or subtractions from the ground-water reservoir within the county.

It is probable that before any water was pumped from wells in Republic County the average annual discharge of ground water by natural processes was approximately equal to the average annual recharge. Artificial discharge by pumping represents an additional amount of water taken from the underground reservoir without any increase in the amount of replenishment. The development of large ground-water resources in the county necessarily will cause some lowering of the water table until the natural discharge by evapotranspiration, by the flow of springs and seeps, or by underground movement of water out of the county is decreased by an amount equal to the withdrawal by pumping.

Discharge by Evaporation and Transpiration

The roots of plants may draw water directly from the zone of saturation and discharge the water into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration. The rate at which water is withdrawn from the zone of saturation varies with the type of plant, the depth to the water table, the climate, the season of the year, the character of the soil, and possibly other factors.

The water table fluctuates in response to plant transpiration generally only in areas where the water table is relatively near the land surface. It depends on the type of vegetation and the character of the material in the zone of aeration, however. The roots of some types of vegetation, especially alfalfa and some trees, are known to penetrate to great depths. In Jewell County a well in which the water level was 40 feet below the land surface showed transpiration effects. In Republic County the greatest amount of transpiration takes place in the Republican River Valley where the water table is near the surface and where the soil is fertile and supports a vigorous vegetal growth. In parts of the county, along the margins of valleys and on the uplands, where the water table is considerably below the reach of the roots of most plants, water is withdrawn from the belt of soil moisture and hence the zone of saturation is only indirectly affected.

Seepage into Streams

A stream that stands lower than the water table receives water from the zone of saturation, but streams that stand above the water table cannot receive water from the zone of saturation. During periods of stream flow, streams of the latter type contribute water to the zone of saturation.

Republican River is a perennial stream. White Rock Creek in Republic County is also a perennial stream except during years of very low precipitation. The other streams in the county are ephemeral. The water-table contours in Plate 2 show that ground water is moving toward the river and in places is discharging as effluent seepage into the river. The measurements on which the contours are based were made during the growing season. Those contours differ from water-table contours for the non-growing season.

Discharge from Springs

In Republic County some water is discharged through springs. Most of the springs observed are in the eastern part of the county where the Greenhorn limestone and the Dakota formation crop out. Numerous seeps from the Greenhorn limestone have been observed after periods of heavy precipitation. Percolating ground water in the Jetmore chalk member of the Greenhorn limestone encounters the less permeable shale in the lower part of the Greenhorn or the Graneros shale and as it cannot continue to move downward, it moves laterally and seeps out on the hillsides. Some creeks in the southeastern part of the county have cut their channels down into the Dakota formation and receive water from numerous springs, some of which are reported to be salty.

The total quantity of water discharged by springs in Republic County is not definitely known, but it is small compared to the discharge by other means.

Discharge from Wells

The above discussion treats of the natural discharge of ground water which seems to account for most of the discharge in the county. The rest of the ground-water discharge within the county is by pumping from wells. The recovery of ground water from wells is discussed below.

Recovery

General Features

When water is withdrawn from a well there is a difference in head between the water inside the well and the water in the surrounding material at some distance from the well. The water table in the vicinity of a well that is discharging water has a depression crudely resembling in form an inverted cone, the apex of which is at the well. This depression of the water table is known as the cone of influence or cone of depression and the corresponding surface area is known as the area of influence. In any given well the greater the pumping rate the greater will be the drawdown (lowering of the water level, commonly expressed in feet) and the greater will be the diameter of the area of measurable influence.

The capacity of a well is the rate at which it will yield water after the water stored in the well has been removed. The capacity depends upon the quantity of water available, the thickness and permeability of the water-bearing bed, the time elapsed since pumping began, and the construction and condition of the well itself. The capacity of a well is generally expressed in gallons per minute. The known or tested capacity of a strong well is generally less than its total capacity, but some weak wells are pumped at their total capacity.

The specific capacity of a well is its rate of yield per unit of drawdown and is determined by dividing the tested capacity in gallons per minute by the drawdown in feet. Well 245, located east of Concordia, had a yield of 730 gallons per minute with a drawdown of 12.27 feet. The specific capacity of that well, therefore, is 59.6 gallons per minute per foot.

When a well is pumped the water level drops rapidly at first and then more slowly, but it may continue to drop for several hours or days, or even months. In testing the specific capacity of a well, therefore, it is important to continue pumping until the water level remains approximately stationary. When the pump is stopped the water level rises rapidly at first, then more slowly, and may continue to rise long after pumping has ceased.

In Republic County and northern Cloud County ground water is recovered from dug, drilled, driven, and bored wells. The type of well depends to a large extent on the character of the water-bearing materials and on the amount of water required.

Wells

Dug wells

Dug wells are wells that have been excavated by hand, generally with pick and shovel. They are walled with wood, rock, concrete, brick, or metal. They are generally less than 60 feet in depth and are from about 3 to 18 feet in diameter. As a rule dug wells are more subject to surface contamination than are properly constructed drilled wells but in parts of Republic County dug wells are generally preferable for farm wells. Some of the water-bearing materials have a low permeability and hence the wells have a low specific capacity. For intermittent pumping a large dug well acts as a storage reservoir for collecting water during a nonpumping period and it will then furnish moderate quantities of water for short periods of pumping.

Many of the wells that receive their water from the surficial deposits overlying the Carlile shale are dug wells. The specific capacity of these wells is very low unless the wells penetrate sand and gravel in alluvium of the small valleys or old buried valleys. Shallow dug wells are numerous where the Jetmore chalk member of the Greenhorn limestone crops out along small gullies or valleys and where the alluvium does not furnish an adequate water supply. Dug wells are also found in the outcrop area of the Dakota formation and along the fringe of the Belleville formation where the underlying saturated sand and gravel is very thin. Former municipal wells 169 at Scandia and 187 and 188 at Courtland are dug wells of large diameter.

Bored Wells

Many wells in some of the unconsolidated surficial deposits in Republic County were bored and cased with tile but in general the water-bearing materials in Republic County are not suited for the use of bored wells. The bored wells are made by hand augers, posthole diggers, or by a horse- or power-driven auger. They range in diameter from about 6 inches to 22 inches but commonly are about 12 inches.

Bored wells are found in areas where the Carlile shale is overlain with semipermeable surficial deposits and along the fringe of the Belleville formation.

Driven Wells

Driven wells can be put down only where the materials are sufficiently permeable and soft enough to permit a pipe being driven and where the depth to water level is within 20 or 25 feet of the surface. Driven wells are used quite extensively for domestic and stock supplies in the alluvium in the Republican River Valley. They range in diameter from 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches and are equipped at the bottom with a screened drivepoint. Some of them are equipped with hand-operated pitcher pumps but most of the stock wells are equipped with windmills. In the wells equipped with windmills the cylinder generally is in a pit about 3 or 4 feet deep.

The driven wells in the Republican River Valley are inexpensive to construct and yield adequate water for stock and domestic use. They require considerable servicing as the screens become clogged easily but it is a comparatively easy job to pull the sand point and either clean the screen or replace it with a new one.

Drilled Wells

Many of the domestic and all of the public supplies in Republic and northern Cloud Counties are obtained from drilled wells. Many of the drilled wells used for domestic and stock purposes on the uplands and some of the municipal wells were drilled by portable cable-tool (or solid-tool) rigs. These wells are cased with galvanized-iron or wrought-iron casing, generally about 6 inches in diameter. The municipal and most of the irrigation wells in the Republican River Valley were drilled by the orange-peel-bucket method and are cased with concrete, bronze, or galvanized-iron casing. Those drilled for municipal use range in diameter from 6 to 18 inches.

Wells in consolidated rocks--Many wells in Republic and northern Cloud Counties obtain water from the consolidated sedimentary deposits (Dakota and Greenhorn formations) and are cased through the overlying unconsolidated deposits and several feet into the bedrock. In most wells of this type the water enters only at the lower end of the casing, hence they are called open-end wells. In some wells, however, the casing extends to the bottom of the hole and the water enters the well through a section of screen or slotted casing placed opposite the water-bearing material. This type of well generally is cased only a short distance into the rock, the lower part of the hole being left uncased.

Wells in unconsolidated deposits--Most of the wells in northcentral Republic County obtain their water supply from the unconsolidated deposits of the Belleville formation. They are cased to the bottom to prevent caving of the walls. In some wells the casing has been perforated in the lower part; in other wells the casing is open only at the bottom. Perforating the casing greatly increases the area of intake, and thus the specific capacity of the well is increased and the entrance velocity of the water is reduced. Well screens are used in some wells to prevent fine sand from entering the well and to increase the intake area.

The municipal wells at Republic, Scandia, and Concordia, the wells at the Concordia Prisoner of War Camp, and some of the irrigation wells were drilled by the orange-peel-bucket method (Pl. 9B) and are gravel packed. In constructing this type of well, a hole of large diameter (48 to 60 inches) is first excavated using an orange-peel-bucket and is temporarily cased. A well screen or perforated casing of a smaller diameter than the hole (12 to 25 inches) is then lowered into place and centered opposite the water-bearing beds. Blank casing extends from the screen to the surface. The annular space between the inner and outer casings then is filled with carefully sorted gravel-preferably of a grain size just slightly larger than the openings in the screen or perforated casing, and also just slightly larger than that of the water-bearing material. The outer casing is then partly withdrawn in order to uncover the screen and allow the water to flow through the gravel packing from the water-bearing material.

Plate 9--A, Sand pit used as irrigation plant in Republican River Valley, SW sec. 28, T. 5 S., R. 3 W. B, Orange-peel bucket used for drilling wells in the Republican River Valley.

Two black and white photos; upper is of sand pit used as irrigation plant in Republican River Valley; lower is of orange-peel bucket used for drilling wells in the valley.

The logs of some of the test holes drilled during the investigation reveal that in some places the water-bearing materials are sufficiently coarse and well sorted that gravel-packed wells are not required in order to obtain large yields. In such places less expensive wells employing well screens or slotted casings, but without gravel packing, may be used satisfactorily. In places where the water-bearing materials are fine-grained, however, the gravel-packed wells have several advantages that offset the greater initial cost. The envelope of selected gravel that surrounds the screen increases considerably the effective diameter of the well and decreases the velocity of the water leaving the formation. This reduction in velocity prevents the movement of fine sand into the well and increases the production of sand-free water. Owing to the increased effective area offered by this type of construction, the entrance friction of the water is reduced and hence the drawdown may be reduced appreciably. As stated above, a reduction in drawdown, at a given yield, increases the specific capacity and reduces the cost of pumping.

Assuming that a well of the best possible construction is employed, then the maximum amount of water that can be withdrawn from the well is fixed by nature and nothing more can be done to make the well yield more than the water-bearing material will provide. The problem for the driller, then, is to construct each individual well in such a manner as to obtain the greatest yield with the smallest amount of drawdown that is possible under the existing conditions.

Utilization

Ground water in Republic and northern Cloud Counties is used chiefly for domestic and stock purposes and for public supplies. Some ground water is being used in the Republican River Valley for irrigation. Some water is used by the railroads and industrial plants but it is obtained from the public supplies and the amount used is very small. Considerable water was used at the Prisoner of War Camp near Concordia. Records of 291 wells in the area were obtained and are tabulated in Table 15; the principal uses of the water are described below.

Domestic and Stock Supplies

Practically all of the domestic and stock supplies in the rural areas and the domestic supplies in small towns that have no public water supplies are obtained from wells. These water supplies are obtained largely from driven wells in the Republican River Valley, from drilled wells in the Belleville formation and in the Greenhorn limestone, from dug and bored wells in the surficial deposits overlying the Carlile shale, and from dug and drilled wells in the Dakota formation. The surficial deposits overlying the Carlile shale have a low permeability and yield only meager quantities of water; hence in areas underlain by these materials dug wells are preferred for supplying stock as they are pumped intermittently and between pumping periods they serve as storage reservoirs.

Irrigation Supplies

Interest in irrigation has increased among the farmers in the Republican River Valley during the last several years as a result of nearly a decade of drought. A few attempts have been made to use surface water for irrigating land along the river. Horton Johnson irrigates a part of the SW sec. 31, T. 2 S., R. 4 W. by pumping water from Republican River. The cost of operating this plant is low as the pump is operated with a steam engine using as fuel wood which is obtained by cutting trees along the river. Mr. Johnson reported that the silt in the river water increased the fertility of his land. C. H. Blosser irrigates an alfalfa field in the SW sec. 28, T. 5 S., R. 3 W. by pumping water from an abandoned sand pit that was washed out during the flood in 1935 (Pl. 9A).

The use of ground water for irrigation has barely started. At the present time there are only four active irrigation wells in the Republican River Valley in Cloud and Republic counties and five other wells that were formerly used for irrigation. The descriptions of these wells are given in the well tables and in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Gillilan well--The unused irrigation well (50) of Joe Gillilan is about one-half mile southeast of Warwick in the SE NE sec. 5, T. 1 S., R. 5 W. It is 26.3 feet deep and 18 inches in diameter and is cased with galvanized iron. The static water level is about 6.5 feet below the land surface. The well was reported to have a yield of 200 gallons a minute, but was not equipped with a pump at the time of the investigation in 1942.

Bjorling well--The unused irrigation well (52) of E. W. Bjorling is about one-half mile south of Warwick in the NE NE sec. 6, T. 1 S., R. 5 W. It is 20.8 feet deep, 36 inches in diameter, and is cased with brick. The static water level is about 7.5 feet below the land surface. The well was reported by the owner to have hit gravel at a depth of 18 feet and shale at a depth of 21 feet. The well had a reported yield of 150 gallons a minute. It was equipped with a 2-inch centrifugal pump and when used it was operated by a tractor. This well was not in use in 1942.

Aurnd well--The irrigation well (64) of Henry Aurnd is about 5 miles northwest of the City of Republic in the SW NW sec. 21, T. 1 S., R. 5 W. It is a dug well, 26 feet deep, 72 inches in diameter, and is cased with concrete tile. It is equipped with a 3-inch centrifugal pump driven by a tractor and was reported to have a yield of about 250 gallons a minute. The well is also equipped with a pump and windmill for stock use. This was the only active irrigation well in Republic County in 1942.

Rickel well--The former irrigation well (67) of D. A. Rickel is about 2 miles northwest of the City of Republic in the SW SE sec. 23, T. 1 S., R. 5 W. It is a dug well, 16 feet deep, 18 inches in diameter, and is cased with galvanized iron. The water level is about 5 feet below the land surface. The bottom of the well is in shale. When used as an irrigation well it was equipped with a 4-inch centrifugal pump powered by a tractor, and was reported to yield from 100 to 300 gallons a minute. It is now equipped with a cylinder pump and windmill for stock use.

Blosser well--The inactive irrigation well (230) of Lloyd Blosser is about one-half mile south of Norway in the NE SW sec. 21, T. 4 S., R. 4 W. It is a drilled well, 48 feet deep, 24 inches in diameter, and is cased with galvanized iron. The water level is about 7.0 feet below the land surface. This well was completed in 1931 and was reported to have a yield of 1,200 gallons a minute, which was the largest reported yield of any well in the Republican River Valley in Republic County. It was damaged by the flood in 1935 and has not been used since that time, but it is still equipped with an 8-inch turbine pump and a 25-horsepower diesel engine.

McGreggor well-- The inactive irrigation well (238) of Morris McGreggor is 3 miles south of Norway in the SW SE sec. 33, T. 4 S., R. 4 W. It is a dug well, 19.3 feet deep, 72 inches in diameter, and is cased with rock. The water level is about 11.0 feet below the land surface. The well was abandoned as an irrigation well and was later equipped with a cylinder pump and windmill for stock use. The windmill tower was still standing but the pump had been removed in 1942.

Hannum well--The irrigation well (276) of Frank J. Hannum is about 3 miles west of Concordia in the SW NE sec. 25, T. 5 S., R. 4 W. It was drilled in 1939. It is 78 feet deep and 4 inches in diameter. The water level is about 7.5 feet below the land surface. The well is reported to have penetrated gravel from 50 to 55 feet and sandstone of the Dakota formation from 55 to 78 feet. It is equipped with a 6-inch centrifugal pump placed in a pit and is operated by a tractor.

Ward well--The irrigation well (260) of Roy Ward is about 2 miles west of Concordia in the SW NW sec. 31, T. 5 S., R. 3 W. It is a dug and drilled well and is 51 feet deep. The upper 23 feet of the well is 54 inches in diameter and is cased with brick. The lower 28 feet is 8 inches in diameter and is cased with iron pipe, the lower 5 feet of which is perforated. A pumping test made on this well is described on page 105. The well yielded about 50 gallons a minute with a drawdown of 24 feet. It is equipped with a 3-inch centrifugal pump operated by a 4-horsepower gasoline engine.

Wright well--The irrigation well (245) of W. T. Wright is about 8 miles east of Concordia in the NW SW sec. 25, T. 5 S., R. 2 W. (Pl. 10A). It was drilled in 1942 by Carl Thoman, driller at Concordia. It is 65.6 feet in depth, 18 inches in diameter, and is cased with galvanized iron. The water level is about 18 feet below the land surface. It is equipped with a turbine pump and operated by a 10-horsepower electric motor. A pumping test made on this well is described on page 104. The well yielded about 730 gallons a minute with a drawdown of about 12 feet.

Plate 10--A, Pumping test on irrigation well 245 in the Republican River Valley east of Concordia in sec. 25, T. 5 S., R. 2 W. B, A typical stock well (82) in the Greenhorn limestone south of Narka.

Two black and white photos; upper is of pumping test on irrigation well 245 in the Republican River Valley east of Concordia; lower is a typical stock well in the Greenhorn limestone south of Narka.

Public Supplies

Seven cities in Republic County have public water systemsBelleville, Courtland, Cuba, Munden, Narka, Republic, and Scandia, all of which are supplied from wells. Some of the cities have had difficulty in obtaining adequate water supplies but now they all have abundant water. The water supply for Concordia, which is also obtained from wells, is the only public supply in Cloud County that is considered in this report. The water supply for the Prisoner of War Camp located northeast. of Concordia in sec. 15, T. 5 S., R. 3 W. is obtained from 2 wells (255 and 256) in the NW sec. 28, T. 5 S., R. 3 W. These wells are about 50 feet deep and 18 inches in diameter. They yield 350 gallons a minute with a drawdown of 2.0 to 2.5 feet.

The water is untreated for municipal use at Belleville, Courtland, Cuba, Munden, Narka, Republic, and Scandia. The City of Concordia chlorinates the water obtained from shallow wells.

Belleville--Prior to 1927 Belleville obtained its water supply from several municipal wells in the northern part of the city. These wells ranged in depth from 160 to 350 feet and obtained water from the Dakota formation. The water had an objectionable salty taste, especially to visitors. The quality of this water threatened the success of the North-Central Kansas Fair, which is held annually at Belleville. A search for a better water supply resulted in the drilling of two wells (21 and 22) about 10 miles north of the city in the SW sec. 2, T. 1 S., R. 3 W. These wells receive their water supply from gravel and sand of the Belleville formation in the ancestral Republican River Valley (Pl. 5, section G-G'). They are 215 feet deep and 18 inches in diameter. They were drilled by the Layne-Western Company and were gravel packed according to standard procedure. They are equipped with turbine pumps driven by 30-horsepower electric motors. According to Charles J. Klaumann, water superintendent, each well yields 425 gallons a minute with a drawdown of 4.5 feet.

The water is pumped by a booster pump to Belleville through a 10-inch cast-iron pipe. The city has a stand pipe and a concrete reservoir having a total capacity of 500,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is about 300,000 gallons.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 244 parts per million and a fluoride content of only 0.1 part per million.

Courtland--Prior to 1937 Courtland obtained its water supply from two dug wells (187 and 188) in the northeastern part of the city in the SW cor. sec. 16. These wells are about 50 feet deep and penetrate thin alluvium in a small draw and the soil mantle overlying the Carlile shale. The amount of water yielded by these wells was inadequate for the water requirements of the city especially during the dry years. In 1937 a well was drilled about one-half mile east of town in the SW cor. SE SE sec. 16 (well 189). This well had a reported depth of 67 feet and a diameter of 16 inches. It penetrated several feet of gravel and sand in the alluvium along a branch of Beaver Creek. The well is equipped with a turbine pump having a capacity of about 75 gallons a minute. The pump is driven by a 5-horsepower electric motor.

The water level was reported to be 27 feet below the land surface. Mr. A. E. Haney, water superintendent, reported that after pumping 109 hours at the maximum capacity of the pump the well still had 18 feet of water in it.

The water is pumped to Courtland through a 4-inch pipe. Storage is provided by a standpipe holding 50,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is about 8,000 gallons.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 720 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.7 part per million.

Cuba--The water supply for Cuba is obtained from two wells (141 and 142) drilled into sandstone of the Dakota formation. The wells were reported by Max Nutter, water superintendent, to have a depth of 217 feet and a diameter of 10 inches. The west well (141) was reported to have been drilled in 1925; the east well was drilled prior to 1925.

The wells are equipped with electrically driven cylinder pumps, and each has a reported yield of 30 gallons a minute. The city has two reservoirs-a surface reservoir having a capacity of 25,000 gallons and a standpipe holding 50,000 gallons. The water is pumped from the surface reservoir into the standpipe by a cylinder pump having a capacity of 200 gallons per minute and driven by a 15-horsepower electric motor. The maximum monthly consumption is about 300,000 gallons. The city has 115 service taps and 18 fire hydrants.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 158 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.5 part. per million. The water has a bicarbonate content of 427 parts per million.

Munden--The water supply for Munden is obtained from one dug well (19) in the SW SE sec. 33. The well was reported by C. J. Scala, water superintendent, to have a depth of 62 feet. It is located near the fringe of the Belleville formation and obtains its supply from this formation.

The well is equipped with a turbine pump driven by an electric motor. The pump is operated twice a day for a period of about 21;2 hours, and the well is pumped dry at each pumping period. Storage is provided by a standpipe having a capacity of 50,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is about 15,000 gallons. There are 56 service taps and 15 fire hydrants.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 407 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.2 part per million.

Narka--The water supply for Narka is obtained from one drilled well (5) in the northeast part of town in the SW SW sec. 15. The well was drilled by Albert Veach of Mahaska and was reported by Leonard Roubinek, water superintendent, to have a depth of 253 feet and a diameter of 10 inches. The well obtains its water supply from a sandstone in the Dakota formation.

The well is equipped with a turbine pump operated by a 7 1/2-horsepower electric motor. The city has a standpipe having a capacity of 50,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is about 3,000 gallons. The system has 50 service taps and 9 fire hydrants.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 88 parts per million and a fluoride content of 1.1 parts per million. The fluoride content is on the border line of the safe limit discussed under Quality of Water. The water contains 1,031 parts per million of total dissolved solids including 444 parts per million of bicarbonates.

City of Republic--The water supply for the City of Republic is obtained from one drilled well (40) located in the eastern part of the city in the SW cor. NW sec. 31. According to Jacob King, water superintendent, the well was drilled in 1923 by the Kelly Well Company and has a depth of 63 feet and a diameter of 18 inches. The well is located near the boundary between the alluvium of the Republican River Valley and the Belleville formation. The well penetrates 25 feet of silt and clay, 32 feet of fine sand, and 5 feet of gravel.

The well is equipped with a turbine pump having a capacity of 120 gallons per minute and operated by a 7 1/2-horsepower electric motor. The city has a standpipe having a capacity of 50,000 gallons.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 160 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.1 part per million.

Scandia--The water supply for Scandia is obtained from one well (173) located south of the city just north of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad and between Republican River and the Missouri Pacific Railroad. This well is in the alluvium of the Republican River Valley. It was drilled by the Layne-Western Company in 1932. The well has a depth of 43 feet and a diameter of 18 inches. It is equipped with a turbine pump having a capacity of 140 gallons per minute which is driven by a 10-horsepower electric motor. The city has another well (169) located just south of the pump house that was used for the municipal supply prior to 1932 and which is being maintained as a standby well in case of fire or damage to the other well. This well has a depth of 31.2 feet and a diameter of 20 feet. It is equipped with a turbine pump and may be operated by a 10-horsepower electric motor or by a tractor. The city also has an abandoned well (172) located near the river and southwest of the Missouri Pacific depot.

Storage is provided by a standpipe located on a hill north of the city. The standpipe has a capacity of 86,000 gallons. The estimated average consumption of water is about 50,000 gallons per day.

An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 318 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.5 part per million.

Concordia--The water supply for Concordia is obtained from 11 wells. Eight wells (258, 259, 261-266) are located north of the city in the alluvium of the Republican River Valley; the other 3 wells (267, 268, and 289) are located within the city limits and obtain their water supply from a sandstone of the Dakota formation. Well 267 is located at the water tower near Sixth Street and Third A venue; well 268 is located near the intersection of Tenth and Niagra Streets; and well 289 is located near the intersection of Fifteenth and Republican Streets.

The 8 wells in the alluvium north of the city were drilled by the Air-made Well Company in 1925 and 1926. The depth of these wells ranges from about 118 to 123 feet. They penetrate only about 50 to 80 feet of alluvium but they were drilled into the Dakota formation so there would be enough submergence to pump the wells by the air-lift method. The wells are pumped with 2 air pumps located in the pumping station at the west end of Mill Street. Each air pump is driven by a 125-horsepower electric motor. The deep wells in the Dakota formation are equipped with electrically driven turbine pumps.

The city has a surface reservoir at the pumping station that holds 300,000 gallons and an elevated steel tank at Third Avenue and Sixth Streets that holds 300,000 gallons. The city uses an average of about 250,000,000 gallons of water a year. For the 10-year period from 1927 to 1936 the minimum pumpage occurred in 1927 and amounted to 224,980,000 gallons. The maximum annual pumpage for the same period was in 1929 and amounted to 280,630,000 gallons. An analysis of the water (Table 6) indicates a total hardness of 344 parts per million and a fluoride content of 0.5 part per million.

During the summer of 1942 the wells in the alluvium were being pumped at approximately the rates given in Table 5. The deeper wells were being maintained on a standby basis.

Table 5--Yields of public-supply wells at Concordia, Kansas

Well No. Rate of
pumping,
gallons
a minute
258 (Concordia well 8) 250
259 (Concordia well 7) 250
261 (Concordia well 4) 250
262 (Concordia well 6) 250
263 (Concordia well 1) 300
264 (Concordia well 3) 75
265 (Concordia well 5) 100
266 (Concordia well 2) 250

Availability of Large Ground-Water Supplies

In normal years the wells in most of Republic County generally yield adequate water for domestic and stock use although the supplies are very meager on some farms, especially in the surficial deposits overlying the Carlile shale. Other areas of meager or moderate supplies include those underlain by the Greenhorn limestone and the Dakota formation. It is desired to call attention to two formations that will yield a perennial supply that is more than adequate to meet the needs of the domestic and stock wells and in which properly located wells will furnish adequate supplies for industrial, municipal, and irrigation uses. These two formations are the alluvium in most parts of the Republican River Valley in Republic and northern Cloud Counties and the Belleville formation in northern Republic County. The availability and quality of water in these formations are discussed under Water-bearing formations.


Prev Page--Geology || Next Page--More on Ground Water

Kansas Geological Survey, Geohydrology
Placed on web Nov. 8, 2016; originally published May 1948.
Comments to webadmin@kgs.ku.edu
The URL for this page is http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/73/05_gw.html