KGS--Glacial Deposits in Northeastern Kansas--Water Use

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Water Use

The Division of Water Resources (DWR) in Kansas has kept records of water use and water appropriations since 1944 and has maintained a computerized data base of water-use information since 1981. Appropriated water volumes are generally 2.5 times larger than the actual reported use, with only 50-75% of the permit holders reporting (Kenny, 1986). Because of the relatively large and increasing population in northeastern Kansas, appropriations of water for public use and industrial use have been steadily increasing since 1944. In 1984, 28.4% [267 Mgpd (million gallons per day) (1.01 x 10⁶ m³/d)] of the water appropriated in eastern Kansas was from a ground-water source. Public supplies made up 11.6%, industrial supplies 11.5%, and irrigation 5.3%. The total volume of water appropriated for 1984 was 942 Mgpd (3.57 x 10⁶ m³/d).

The DWR reported a total water right volume of 147,920 acre-ft [132 Mgpd (5.00 x 10⁵ m³/d)] in 1981 for the 12-county region of northeastern Kansas (table 6). From the given well locations we interpreted aquifer types from available well logs and hydrogeologic maps. Ninety-four percent of the water allocated came from alluvial aquifers; only 4% of the water was from glacial aquifers and less than 2% was from rock aquifers (tables 7 and 8). Most of the water rights were found in counties bordering the Kansas and Missouri River valleys, where 98% of the appropriations from alluvial aquifers are located. The number of wells and water volumes are calculated for use and aquifer categories by county and for the total 12-county area (tables 7 and 8).

Table 6--1981-1982 Volume of ground-water pumpage by type in northeastern Kansas. ^a

County	Municipal use^b		Irrigation use^b		Industrial use^b
County	1981	1982	1981	1982	1981	1982
Atchison	1,107,893 (3)	71,048,552 (218)	49,529,352 (152)	0	0	0
Brown	263,668,853 (809)	230,243,058 (707)	0	0	0	0
Doniphan	156,411,738 (480)	215,446,164 (661)	20,307,034 (62)	8,100,655 (25)	0	0
Douglas	464,562,512 (1,426)	457,061,422 (1,403)	152,615,574 (468)	82,104,676 (252)	3,967,418,401 (12,176)	1,258,306,221 (3,862)
Jackson	5,637,222 (17)	108,632,206 (333)	0	0	0	0
Jefferson	270,544,309 (830)	238,011,345 (730)	48,167,294 (148)	83,942,476 (258)	8,732,806 (27)	9,606,087 (29)
Johnson	1,310,898,573 (4,023)	1,285,156,344 (3,944)	1,381,608 (4)	377,987 (1)	498,623,717 (1,530)	355,008,147 (1,090)
Leavenworth	1,087,615,692 (3,338)	1,350,971,728 (4,146)	2,219,045 (7)	34,422,899 (106)	0	0
Nemaha	226,388,240 (695)	363,239,143 (1,115)	0	0	55,189,383 (169)	60,481,204 (186)
Shawnee	164,118,114 (504)	176,601,466 (542)	552,728,017 (1,696)	1,013,507,399 (3,110)	2,228,276,668 (6,839)	2,202,837,481 (6,761)
Wabaunsee	120,708,244 (370)	36,009,794 (111)	28,632,527 (88)	462,910,447 (1,421)	36,935,210 (113)	32,128,908 (99)
Wyandotte	2,016,284,525 (6,188)	3,975,043,314 (12,200)	141,885,300 (435)	94,998,600 (292)	3,910,915,838 (12,003)	3,102,955,249 (9,523)
Total	6,087,945,915 (18,684)	8,507,464,536 (26,110)	997,465,751 (3,061)	1,780,365,139 (5,464)	10,706,092,020 (32,858)	7,021,323,297 (21,549)
a. As reported to the Division of Water Resources by February 16, 1984. b. Reported to the Division of Water Resources in gallons. Acre-feet given in parentheses. Conversion: acre-feet = gallons (1 ft³17.48 gal) (1 acre-ft/43,560 ft³). c. Pending rights (in acre-feet) as of May 1983 given in parentheses.

(Table 6, continued)

County	Domestic use^b		Total use^b		Ground-water rights allocated as of May 1983 (acre-ft)^c	Percentage of rights reportedly pumped for use
County	1981	1982	1981	1982	Ground-water rights allocated as of May 1983 (acre-ft)^c	1981	1982
Atchison	0	0	50,637,245 (155)	71,048,552 (218)	1,302	12	17
Brown	0	0	263,668,853 (809)	230,243,058 (707)	1,266	62	55
Doniphan	0	0	176,718,772 (542)	223,546,819 (686)	1,313	41	52
Douglas	0	0	4,584,596,487 (14,071)	1,797,472,319 (5,517)	16,559	85	33
Jackson	0	0	5,637,222 (17)	108,632,206 (333)	922	2	36
Jefferson	0	0	327,444,409 (1,005)	331,559,908 (1,018)	6,298 (37)	16	16
Johnson	0	0	1,810,903,898 (5,558)	1,640,542,478 (5,035)	21,285 (5)	26	24
Leavenworth	0	0	1,089,834,737 (3,345)	1,385,394,627 (4,252)	4,619 (4)	72	92
Nemaha	0	0	281,577,623 (864)	423,720,347 (1,300)	1,687 (270)	51	77
Shawnee	5,998,916 (18)	58,653 (0)	2,951,121,715 (9,057)	3,393,004,999 (10,413)	33,283 (380)	27	31
Wabaunsee	0	0	186,275,981 (572)	531,049,149 (1,630)	4,967 (132)	12	33
Wyandotte	0	0	6,069,085,663 (18,627)	7,172,997,163 (22,015)	54,419	34	40
Total	5,998,916 (18)	58,653 (0)	17,797,502,610 (54,622)	17,309,211,630 (53,124)	147,920 (828)	37	36
a. As reported to the Division of Water Resources by February 16, 1984. b. Reported to the Division of Water Resources in gallons. Acre-feet given in parentheses. Conversion: acre-feet = gallons (1 ft³17.48 gal) (1 acre-ft/43,560 ft³). c. Pending rights (in acre-feet) as of May 1983 given in parentheses.

Table 7--1983 Ground-water rights by use and aquifer for northeastern Kansas counties.

Water use and aquifer type^a		Number of wells	Percentage of volume (acre-ft)	Total volume for county
Atchison County (eight water rights)
Irrigation
	Alluvial	4	976	75
Municipal
	Alluvial	1	34	3
	Glacial	10	292	22
Total		15	1,302	100
Brown County (11 water rights)
Municipal
	Alluvial	4	24	2
	Glacial	15	1,017	78
	Rock	8	225	20
Total		27	1296	100
Doniphan County (11 water rights)
Irrigation
	Alluvial	3	505	38
Municipal
	Alluvial	7	614	47
	Glacial	6	194	15
Total		16	1,313	100
Douglas County (65 water rights)
Industrial
	Alluvial	21	9,947	60
	Rock	3	82	0
Irrigation
	Alluvial	27	2,096	13
	Rock	1	2	0
Municipal
	Alluvial	19	3,451	21
	Glacial	1	0	0
	Rock	36	981	6
Total		108	16,559	100
Jackson County (six water rights)
Municipal
	Alluvial	1	7	1
	Glacial	5	890	96
	Rock	2	25	3
Total		8	922	100
Jefferson County (70 water rights)
Industrial
	Alluvial	3	373	6
Irrigation
	Alluvial	36	3,223	51
Municipal
	Alluvial	20	1,779	28
	Glacial	23	923	15
Total		82	6,298	100
Johnson County (14 water rights)
Industrial
	Alluvial	13	11,233	53
	Rock	2	5	0
Irrigation
	Alluvial	5	357	2
Municipal
	Alluvial	22	9,690	45
Total		42	21,285	100
Leavenworth County (20 water rights)
Irrigation
	Alluvial	10	833	18
Municipal
	Alluvial	20	3,131	68
	Glacial	1	62	1
	Rock	14	593	13
Total		45	4,619	100
Nemaha County (23 water rights)
Industrial
	Rock	3	138	8
Irrigation
	Glacial^a	1	70	4
Municipal
	Glacial^a	30	1,479	88
Total		34	1,687	100
Shawnee County (217 water rights)
Domestic
	Alluvial	1	6	0
Industry
	Alluvial	26	14,820	45
	Glacial	1	129	0
Irrigation
	Alluvial	187	16,242	49
Municipal
	Alluvial	17	2,086	6
	Rock	1	3	0
Total		233	33,283	100
Wabaunsee County (54 water rights)
Industrial
	Alluvial	7	534	11
Irrigation
	Alluvial	41	4,107	83
	Glacial (?)	1	65	I
Municipal
	Alluvial	11	169	3
	Rock	7	92	2
Total		67	4,967	100
Wyandotte County (35 water rights)
Industry
	Alluvial	63	39,078	72
Irrigation
	Alluvial	3	1,356	2
Municipal
	Alluvial	28	13,816	25
	Glacial	2	169	1
Total		96	54,419	100
a. Glacial and alluvial aquifers are included where wells penetrate both aquifers.

Table 8--Summary of water rights by use and source for the 12-county study area (totals): 1983.

Water use and aquifer		Number of wells	Volume (acre-ft)	Percentage of total volume
Domestic
	Alluvial	1	3	0
	Total	1	3	0
Industry
	Alluvial	133	75,985	51
	Rock	8	225	0
	Glacial	1	129	0
	Total	142	76,342	52
Irrigation
	Alluvial	316	29,695	20
	Rock	1	2	0
	Glacial	2	135	0
	Total	319	29,832	20
Municipal
	Alluvial	150	34,801	24
	Rock	68	1,919	1
	Glacial	93	5,026	3
	Total	311	41,746	28
Total		773	147,920	100

Fifty-two percent of the total rights were allocated for industrial use, and Wyandotte County had 51% of the total allocated volume for industrial use [39,078 acre-ft or 35 Mgpd (1.3x 10⁵ m³/d)] in the 12-county area. Shawnee, Johnson, and Douglas counties were allocated 19%, 15%, and 13%, respectively, of the industrial volume. There were 142 industrial wells reported.

A volume of 41,746 acre-ft [37 Mgpd (1.4 x 10⁵ m³/d)], or 28% of the total volume for the study region, was allocated for municipal use. Although the number of municipal wells is almost twice that of industrial wells, the municipal use category was allocated about half the volume of water allocated for industrial use. Municipaluse allocations for the counties were generally related to population density, with Wyandotte County allocated 13,985 acre-ft [12.5 Mgpd (4.73 x 10⁴ m³/d)), or 33.5% of the total municipal volume, and Johnson and Douglas counties allocated 23% and 10.6%, respectively, of the municipal total. In Brown and Jackson counties, all the wells reported were for municipal use.

Irrigation ground waters make up 20% of the total allocated volume. Shawnee County was allocated 55% of the total volume for irrigation use, distributed among 187 wells. Wabaunsee and Jefferson counties also had substantial water volumes allocated for irrigation.

Less than 0.1% of the total water allocated was attributed to the domestic, stock, and recreation categories. However, domestic wells generally do not need a water right, and domestic well owners do not report water use to the DWR.

Alluvial aquifers (600 wells) supplied most of the water allocated for industrial, irrigation, and municipal uses. Thirty-six wells tapping rock aquifers were allocated water for municipal use in Douglas County (table 7).

Ground water allocated from glacial aquifers was predominantly for municipal use and included 93 wells. One well in a glacial aquifer located in Shawnee County had an industrial use, and two glacial aquifer wells located in Wabaunsee and Nemaha counties were used for irrigation.

Table 6 shows ground-water use in 1981 and 1982, as reported to the DWR by February 16, 1984, for northeastern Kansas. Thirty-four percent was reportedly pumped for municipal supplies, 6% for irrigation, and 60% for industrial use in 1981. This amounted to 37% of the appropriated ground-water rights. In 1982, 49% was reportedly pumped for municipal supplies, 10% for irrigation, and only 41% for industrial use. Reported actual pumpage for 1982 was close to 36% of the allocated ground-water rights.

Wyandotte County reported the largest pumpage for municipal supplies, with 33% and 47% in 1981 and 1982, respectively; Shawnee County reported the largest pumpage of ground water for irrigation, averaging 56% of the total reported irrigation supplies for 1981 and 1982. Douglas and Wyandotte counties reported the largest pumpage for industrial purposes in 1981, with 26% and 34%, respectively. In 1982 Wyandotte County dominated the industrial-use category, reportedly pumping 41 % of the allocated water rights.

The fluctuation of use reported to the DWR may not reflect actual changes in use; rather, the fluctuations may reflect inconsistencies in the reports sent to the DWR. These inconsistencies make reliable comparisons from year to year difficult and of doubtful accuracy.

According to DWR records, no county in the 12-county region surpassed allocated ground-water rights; in several cases counties reported use of less than 20% of the allocated volume (see table 6). Leavenworth County reported the greatest percentage of use: 72% and 92% for 1981 and 1982, respectively. Atchison County reported the lowest percentage of use compared to allocated volume, with 12% and 17% for 1981 and 1982, respectively.

Allocations for wells associated with the main buried channel amount to 1,466 acre-ft of ground water from Atchison, Jackson, and Nemaha counties (table 9). Tributaries associated with the main buried channel contribute an additional 837 acre-ft of ground water, and these sources together account for 43% of the ground water used in 1981 for public supplies [750 Mgal (2.8 million m3)]. An additional 214 acre-ft from the three counties were derived from wells tapping a combination of glacial and alluvial deposits.

Table 9--Allocated ground water from wells associated with the main buried channel across northeastern Kansas.

Well location	Reported volume (acre-ft)
Atchison County
NE SW NW sec. 22, T. 6 S., R. 18 E.	58.3
NE SW NW sec. 22, T. 6 S., R. 18 E.	43.0
Subtotal	101.3
Jackson County
NE SW NW sec. 7, T. 6 S., R. 16 E.	293.5
NE SW NW sec. 7, T. 6 S., R. 16 E.	293.5
Subtotal	587.0
Nemaha County
NW SE NW sec. 2, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	260.8
NW SW NW sec. 2, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	107.0
NW SW NW sec. 2, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	135.0
NW SE NE sec. 10, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	101.5
SW SW NW sec. 10, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	135.0
SE SW NE NE sec. 10, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	13.8
NW SE NE sec. to, T. 5 S., R. 11 E.	24.6
Subtotal	777.7
Total^a	1,466
As of May 1983. All wells are public supply wells. Volume of ground water from tributaries to the main buried channel = 837 acre-ft (273 Mgpd). Volume of ground water from tributaries to the main buried channel tapping both glacial and alluvial sources = 214.4 acre-ft (70 Mgal or 0.2 Mgpd). a. 1,466 acre-ft = 477 Mgal = 1.3 Mgpd.

We also collected public water-use information for northeastern Kansas from the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE) files (table 10). We gathered as much information as possible for 1981, but for many supplies we had to use data from other years or part of a year in place of the unavailable 1981 data. The water volumes were usually reported from cities and rural water districts and used meter readings as a reference, although in some cases volumes were estimated. It was not clear for some supplies how much water was sold to or acquired from other districts.

Table 10--Water-use data: volume reported for public use (1981).

County	KDHE data		DWR data (acre-ft)	Absolute difference (acre-ft)	% Difference (larger volume)
County	Mgal	Acre-ft	DWR data (acre-ft)	Absolute difference (acre-ft)	% Difference (larger volume)
Atchison	82.16	267.8	3	264.8	99
Brown	202.65	660.4	809	148.6	18.4
Doniphan	123.89	403.8	480	76.2	15.9
Douglas	315.08	1,026.8	1,426	399.2	28
Jackson	341.8	1,113.9	17	1,096.9	98.5
Jefferson	157.13	512.1	830	317.9	38.3
Johnson	5,272.17	17,182.0	4,023	13,159	76.6
Leavenworth	733.38	2,390.1	3,338	948	28.4
Nemaha	303.93	990.5	695	295.5	29.8
Shawnee	301.433	982.4	504	478.4	48.7
Wabaunsee	55.79	181.8	370	188.2	50.9
Wyandotte	59.81	194.9	6,188	5,993.1	96.8
Total	7,949.22	25,906.5	18,684	7,222.5	27.9

The largest percentage differences (>96%) in DWR and KDHE reported public ground-water use were from Atchison, Jackson, and Wyandotte counties. Use reported to the DWR for Atchison and Jackson counties was low, and volumes reported to the KDHE for Wyandotte County were also low. Large percentage differences were also apparent in Johnson, Shawnee, and Wabaunsee counties. Overall, volumes reported to the KDHE were 27.9% greater than those reported to the DWR.

According to water-well records, which have been required by the state since 1975, the greatest number of wells drilled were for domestic use (59.5%). Ten counties in the 12-county area of northeastern Kansas (excluding Wyandotte and Johnson counties) had the highest percentage of wells in the domestic category (table 11). Johnson and Wyandotte counties are affected by the great amount of industrial development in the Kansas City area. Johnson County had 116 observation wells drilled, and Wyandotte County had 282 wells in the observation-well category and other categories (e.g., dewatering, relief, and monitoring). There were records for 123 observation and monitoring wells drilled by the Sunflower Army Ammunitions Plant located in Johnson County.

Table 11--Water use indicated by water-well records (1975-October 1983).

County	Use (%)^a							Number of WWRs for county	Percentage of total WWRs for 12 counties
County	Domestic (based on 1358.3 WWRs)	Lawn and garden, stock (based on 123.8 WWRs)	Public supply (based on 73 WWRs)	Industrial and commercial (based on 56.5 WWRs)	Observation (based on 323 WWRs)	Irrigation (based on 151.8 WWRs)	Other^b (based on 146.5 WWRs)	Number of WWRs for county	Percentage of total WWRs for 12 counties
Atchison	71.1	16.2	2.8	1.4	-	8.4	-	71	3.1
Brown	87.9	3.4	2.6	6.0	-	-	-	116	5.1
Doniphan	78.1	15.6	1.6	3.1	-	-	1.6	64	2.8
Douglas	55.8	3.7	5.0	2.7	13.0	7.7	12.0	238	10.4
Jackson	91.5	3.5	2.1	-	2.1	-	0.7	141	6.2
Jefferson	68.6	3.6	8.6	1.4	6.4	9.3	2.1	140	6.1
Johnson	23.1	-	6.4	-	67.0	1.2	2.3	173	7.6
Leavenworth	90.1	0.6	3.3	0.6	3.3	1.6	0.6	363	1.6
Nemaha	63.2	7.0	8.8	-	12.3	-	8.8	57	2.5
Shawnee	55.2	16.1	0.8	2.0	3.1	22.3	0.5	392	17.2
Wabaunsee	79.6	5.0	3.7	1.1	0.6	10.1	-	189	8.3
Wyandotte	8.3	0.3	0.6	7.7	38.9	-	44.2	339	14.8
Total								2283	100.0
Percentage of total water wells	59.5	5.4	3.2	2.5	14.1	6.6	8.6
WWR, water-well record. a. Fractions indicate wells that have more than one use. b. Uses include test wells, dewatering, and relief wells.

Shawnee County had the greatest number of waterwell records, including 216 domestic wells and 87 irrigation wells. Leavenworth County was second in the number of water-well records, with 90.1%, or 327 wells reported for domestic use. The number of wells in these two counties probably reflects the suburban growth in the Kansas City and Topeka areas. The lawn and garden-stock category was significant in Shawnee, Atchison, and Doniphan counties, with Shawnee County having 63 wells in this category.

Shawnee County had the largest percentage of irrigation wells, with 55.2% of the total number of irrigation wells in the 12-county region. Other counties with irrigation wells are Atchison (six wells), Leavenworth (six wells), Jefferson (13 wells), Douglas (18 wells), and Wabaunsee (19 wells). These irrigation wells are in the Kansas and Missouri River alluvium.

The "Priority List for Technical Assistance" was created by the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE, 1983) to help "determin[e] priorities for action in dealing with communities to establish more reliable and better quality water supplies." Water districts in northeastern Kansas included in this list as of April 1983 are separated into three priority categories: high, intermediate, and potential. Problems associated with the high-priority category include a severe lack of an adequate quantity of water; the intermediate category indicates pressure and treatment plant problems, water-quality problems, or less severe quantity problems; and the potential category indicates possible problems with a district's quality or quantity of water. There were no priority listings for Douglas, Jackson, Shawnee, and Wyandotte counties.

The Eskridge district in Wabaunsee County is listed as high priority, having both quantity and quality problems. Eskridge has two wells but is planning to obtain water from Lake Wabaunsee in the future. Wabaunsee County RWD 1, also listed as high priority, has only two wells, which are reported to have poor water quality because of high iron and manganese concentrations.

Leavenworth County RWD 1 is listed under the highpriority category because it has distribution, storage, and pressure problems. The city of Linwood, listed as intermediate priority, has two wells with water-quality problems, specifically high iron and manganese levels. Tonganoxie is listed as a potential problem because of the low quantity of water during drought seasons. Leavenworth County RWD 6 obtains its water from Tonganoxie and consequently is also listed in the potential category.

Brown County has two intermediate-priority districts, including Powhattan and Robinson. Powhattan has two wells with quantity and quality (high nitrate and selenium levels) problems, and Robinson has six wells with quantity and nitrate problems. Brown County RWD 1, which has six wells, is reported to have a distribution problem.

Doniphan County has two intermediate-priority districts: RWD 2 (with only one well) and RWD 3 (with two wells). Both districts have high nitrate concentrations.

Winchester, in Jefferson County, is listed as an intermediate-priority area because of water-quantity and -quality problems. Winchester district's one well has a high nitrate concentration, and its two springs are inadequate to meet user demands. Districts listed as potential problems in Jefferson County include RWD 1, RWD 6, RWD 7, RWD 15, McLouth, and Summerfield. Water-quantity problems exist in RWD 6, RWD 15, and McLouth; and problems with distribution systems exist in RWD 1 and RWD 7. Summerfield has water-quality problems, specifically high sulfate and selenium concentrations. All these districts in Jefferson County obtain their water from wells, except McLouth, which has two springs and seven wells.

Two districts in Nemaha County were listed as intermediate priority. The interconnected RWD 1 and Bern water systems have five wells. Water-quantity problems and high iron levels were cited as reasons for the intermediate rating.

Johnson County has five intermediate-priority areas: Edgerton, Spring Hill, RWD 6, RWD 6A, and RWD 7. All these districts were reported to have water-quantity problems. Spring Hill and RWD 7, which obtain their water from Olathe, have a limited purchase amount, as do RWD 6 and RWD 6A, which obtain their water from DeSoto. Edgerton obtains its water from a reservoir that dries up during droughts and from RWD 7, which has a limited purchase amount. A few of these districts have plans to connect with other water districts to solve their water demands.

A study of northeastern Kansas water supplies was done by Associated Engineers, Inc., and a draft report was completed in May 1980. This study provides basic data and planning information concerning the municipal and industrial water needs in a large region of northeastern Kansas. In general, the study plans for large water-supply systems that have centralized treatment plants and extensive distribution systems. Three sources of water were investigated: impounded surface water (from proposed and existing reservoirs), river water, and ground water. Certain rural water districts and urban areas were chosen as priority areas because of their lack of a sufficient number of wells, high nitrate concentrations, the existence of old wells, water shortages, water shortage during drought, contract problems, high sulfate concentrations, silting of reservoirs, and other impoundment problems. Plans were proposed to meet the needs of these priority areas, the future needs of all areas to the year 2035, and the needs of the present unserved population.

Associated Engineers proposed meeting the water needs of northeastern Kansas chiefly by using surfacewater sources and planning many small reservoirs. Water supply systems along the Missouri River would be largely dependent on the river water, either from an intake system or from alluvial wells. Leavenworth, Atchison, and Doniphan counties are currently largely dependent on Missouri River alluvial waters. Two reservoirs in Atchison County and one in Doniphan County were proposed. In Jackson County a combination of sources is presently in use, including ground water from various alluvial deposits (e.g., the Delaware River) and water from Perry Reservoir. Another reservoir east of the city of Holton was proposed. Perry Lake and the Kansas River alluvium supply water to areas of Jefferson County, and two reservoirs were proposed to be located north of the city of Winchester. Shawnee and Wabaunsee counties are largely dependent on the Kansas River, and reservoirs were proposed in both of these counties. In these two counties water from the Kansas River would be piped to all parts of the counties.

Glacial aquifers were considered in Brown and Nemaha counties. A well field was proposed north of the city of Hiawatha in Brown County, and a well field was proposed in sec. 11, T. 3 S., R. 12 E., in Nemaha County. Brown and Nemaha counties presently depend on glacial aquifers and ground water in general, although the city of Sabetha (Nemaha County) obtains water from a small reservoir.

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Kansas Geological Survey, Geohydrology
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